How do groups act and interact?
Quips and Quotes
Isolated, a man may be a cultured individual; in a crowd
he is a barbarian.
This overview lesson introduces the concept of collective
behaviours in a variety of forms ranging from clubs and
teams to gangs, cults and mobs.
Simon Lebon
Lesson Objectives
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What are collective behaviours?
What are some examples of collective behaviours?
What are the theoretical approaches to collective behaviour?
What is groupthink, and how does it influence group behaviours?
How does culture influence group behaviours?
Suggested
Instructional
Strategies
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Group problem solving activity: Tallest free-standing structure
o Divide the class into groups of four or five. To each group distribute 50
drinking straws, and a roll of masking tape. The object of the exercise is
to build the tallest, free-standing structure using the drinking straws and
tape. The construction must not be attached to anything, and the straws
can be taped together, but not inserted into the ends of the straws.
o After the activity has concluded, discuss with the students the various
group processes and dynamics involved, for example, leaders and
followers, group decision making, leadership and compliance.
Jigsaw/Presentation/Role Play: Examples of collective behaviours
o Assign one of the eight types of collective behaviours to a small group,
and direct each group to find examples of its type of collective behaviour
in the media (magazines, television, video), or to create a role play that
illustrates that type of behaviour.
Mime: Contagion theories
o A small group will create a mime that illustrates one of the four
examples of contagion theory (suggestibility, social contagion,
impersonality, anonymity).
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Direct
Independent
Interactive
Indirect
Experiential
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Resources
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Research: Collective behaviours
o Using an observational research style, have students observe various
collective behaviours in such contexts as sports events, coffee shops,
cafeteria, hallways, and the classroom.
Discussion: Prosocial and antisocial groups
o Brainstorm examples of prosocial and antisocial groups. From the lists
generated, discuss the differences. What makes groups pro- or antisocial?
What is the role of leadership? Are there gender differences in pro- or
antisocial behaviours?
Role Play: Groupthink
o Have a small group of students create a role play to illustrate the concept
of groupthink.
o Discuss examples of this kind of behaviour that occur in the classroom,
school, community and province.
Consensus decision making: Collective behaviours
o Conduct a consensus decision-making process that addresses the
question: Should individuals involved in group behaviour (e.g., riots,
gangs) be punished as individuals, or treated as a group?
Materials: Masking tape, drinking straws
Lesson 4.4: Teacher Information
What are collective behaviours?
Milgram and Toch (1969) define collective behaviour as behaviour which originates spontaneously, is relatively unorganized, fairly
unpredictable and planless in its course of development, and which depends upon inter-stimulation among participants (Gross and
McIlveen, 1998, p. 524).
What are some examples of collective behaviours?
Some examples of collective behaviour include:
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Panic is a form of action in which a crowd, excited by a belief in some imminent threat, may engage in uncontrolled, and
therefore dangerous, collective flight. The action of the whole panicked crowd is not entirely irrational. Each individual acts
to escape a perceived threat. However, the uncontrolled and uncoordinated action, and the response based on emotional
contagion, give panic an irrational character.
A fad is a trivial, short lived variation in speech, decoration or behaviour. One example of a fad was that of ‘streaking’, which
first emerged in the mid-1970s during the summer months.
Fashion is similar to a fad, but is less trivial and changes less rapidly. Long hair in men has been in and out of fashion several
times, as have different lengths of women’s dresses.
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Whereas a panic is a rush away from a perceived threat, a craze is a rush towards some satisfaction. Crazes differ from fads in
that they become obsessions for their followers.
Propaganda includes all efforts to persuade people to a point of view on an issue. The distinction between education and
propaganda is that the former cultivates the ability to make discriminating judgements, whereas the latter seeks to persuade
people to the undiscriminating acceptance of ready-made judgements.
Public opinion can be defined as (1) an opinion held by a substantial number of people, or (2) the dominant opinion among a
population. The first use allows for many public opinions, whereas the second refers to public consensus on some issue.
A social movement is some collectivity acting with some continuity to promote or resist a change in the society or group of
which it is a part.
A revolution is a sudden, usually violent, and relatively complete change in a social system (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p.
524).
What are the theoretical approaches to collective behaviour?
Contagion Theories
LeBon (1879) identified several situational determinants of behaviour which come into operation when a crowd is assembled, these
being:
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Whilst some believe that the role played by suggestibility has been over-emphasized, heightened suggestibility does make
rumour an important part of collective behaviour.
Social contagion, or interactional amplification, is the process whereby members of a crowd stimulate and respond to one
another and thereby increase their emotional intensity and responsiveness. When so aroused, a crowd needs emotional release,
and it may act on the first suggested action, which accords with its impulses.
In the cases of mobs and riots, the impersonality of crowd behaviour is illustrated by treating one member of the ‘enemy’ as
being as bad as another, which explains why innocent passersby are often the victims of a riot.
LeBon believed that the more anonymous the crowd, the greater was its potential for extreme action, because anonymity
removes the sense of individuality from members. When a person does not feel that he or she is being singled out as an
individual, and when attention is not paid to others as individuals, restraints on behaviour are removed and a person is ‘free’ to
indulge in behaviour that ordinarily would be controlled. The reason for this is that moral responsibility for behaviour has
been shifted from the individual person to the group of which he or she is a member.
Festinger (1952) proposed the concept of deindividuation, defining it as a state of affairs in a group where members do not pay
attention to other individuals as individuals and, correspondingly, the members do not feel they are being singled out by
others. According to Festinger, membership in a group not only provides us with a sense of identity and belongingness, but
also allows us to merge with the group, forego our individualities, and become anonymous. This may lead to a reduction of
inner constraints and inhibitions.
Convergence Theories
Convergence theory argues that crowd behaviour arises from the gathering together of people who share the same needs, impulses,
dislikes and purposes. Organized gatherings of many kinds provide settings that integrate crowd behaviour into the social structure.
Emergent Norm Theory
One weakness of contagion theory is that it does not explain why a crowd takes one course of action rather than another. According to
emergent norm theorists, contagion theorists are guilty of exaggerating the irrational and purposeless components of crowd
behaviour. According to Brown (1954) there are standards of behaviour that emerge from groups, defined as thresholds for
participation, including:
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The lawless: These are impulsive people who need little provocation before they try to retaliate. The lawless have little
understanding of or concern for the consequences of their actions.
The suggestible: These are people who are easily influenced by an impulsive leader, although it is unlikely that they would
initiate action on their own.
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The cautious: These are people with strong interests in the kinds of actions initiated by others, but who would not act because
of a fear of the law. If this constraint is lifted, they take action in pursuit of their own interests.
The yielders: These are people who are easily persuaded that everybody is engaged in a particular activity. Yielders act when
a sufficient number of people are acting because they do not want to be left out, and see an action is right because others are
engaged in it.
The supportive: Whilst the supportive cannot be stampeded into action, they do not actively oppose it. They may watch or
shout encouragement. They are not violent, but they do not stand out against violence in others.
The resisters: These are people whose values make them opposed to mob action, and who will not support it, even
passively. Because of this, they are in danger of their lives if they speak up at the wrong time (Gross and McIlveen, 1998, p.
524-530).
What is groupthink, and how does it influence group behaviours?
Janis (1989) has coined the term groupthink for the tendency for group members, especially elite groups, to assume that the group
invariably has the right answer. It occurs when a group seeks a solution to a problem without fully considering all the possible
alternatives (Alcock et al., 1998, p. 164).
Close, friendly groups usually work well together. But they face the problem of getting the best ideas and efforts of their members
while avoiding an extreme form of conformity called groupthink, the tendency to think alike and suppress dissent. According to Janis
(1989) groupthink occurs when a group's need for total agreement overwhelms its need to make the wisest decision. The symptoms of
groupthink include:
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An illusion of invulnerability. The group believes that it can do no wrong and is 100 percent correct in its decisions.
Self-censorship. Dissenters decide to keep quiet rather than rock the boat, offend their friends, or risk being ridiculed.
Direct pressure on dissenters to conform. The leader teases or humiliates dissenters or otherwise pressures them to go along.
An illusion of unanimity. By discouraging dissent, leaders and group members create an illusion of consensus (Tavris and
Wade, 2000, p. 281).
How does culture influence group behaviours?
In contrast to the independent self-system common in Western cultures, the more collectivist orientation promotes an interdependent
self-system through which people see themselves as a fraction of the social whole; each person has little or no meaningful definition
without reference to the group. These cultural differences may produce differences in how people view their personal
accomplishments. In Japan, positive moods and feelings such as calmness or elation were associated strongly with positive
interpersonal connections. For U.S. students, the results were opposite: Positive feelings were most associated with personal
achievement (Bernstein and Nash, 1999, p. 427).