What Is Motivation?
Motivation:
• Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and
sustain behavior
• Can come from:
– Internal “push” forces or
– External “pull” forces
Sources of Motivation (Ex. 10.1)
INTERNAL
(PUSH FORCES)
Characteristics of
THE INDIVIDUAL
(examples)
Needs




For security
For self-esteem
For achievement
For power
Attitudes




About
About
About
About
self
job
supervisor
organization
EXTERNAL
(PULL FORCES)
Characteristics of
THE JOB
(examples)
Feedback
 For security
 For self-esteem
Work load
Tasks
 Variety
 Scope
Goals
 Task completion
 Performance level
 Career advancement
Discretion
 How job is performed
Characteristics of
THE WORK SITUATION
(examples)
Immediate social
environment
 Supervisor(s)
 Workgroup members
 Subordinates
Organizational actions
 Rewards and
compensation
 Availability of training
 Pressure for high levels
of output
Motivation Theories
Content Theories
Process Theories
Focus
Personal needs that
workers attempt to satisfy.
Features in the work
environment that satisfy
a worker’s needs.
How different variables
can combine to
influence the amount
of effort put forth by
employees.
Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
McClelland’s Acquired
Need Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Content Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Focus
Personal needs that
workers attempt to satisfy.
Features in the work
environment that satisfy
a worker’s needs.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
McClelland’s Acquired
Need Theory
Theories Focusing on
INTERNAL Factors
Theories
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Theory Focusing on
EXTERNAL Factors
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Theory
SelfActualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
• Humans have five needs
arranged in hierarchy of
strength and influence
Individuals:
• Satisfy most basic
(prepotent) needs first
• Move to the next level of
needs after preceding
needs is satisfied
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• ERG = existence,
relatedness, growth
• Different levels of
needs can be active
at the same time
• People can move
back to a lower level
need even after a
high level need has
been met
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs
Theories
Highest-order
needs
Selfactualization Growth
Esteem
Belongingness Relatedness
Most
essential
(prepotent)
needs
Safety
Existence
Physiological
Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy Categories
Alderfer’s Needs
Hierarchy Categories
Acquired Needs Theory
• Individuals have three “learned” needs:
Power, affiliation, achievement
• People with need for achievement:
– Work on tasks of moderate difficulty
– Take moderate risks
– Take personal responsibility for one’s own
actions
– Receive specific and concrete feedback on
one’s own performance
Two-Factor Theory
Motivators:
Factors directly
related to doing
a job
Hygiene Factors: Elements
associated with conditions
surrounding the job
Supervision
Recognition
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Nature
of the
work
Compensation
Working
conditions
Job
Benefits
Relations with
co-workers
Effects of Hygiene Factors and
Motivators
From the state of being neither
satisfied nor dissatisfied,
motivators can impel an
employee’s motivation and
performance to higher levels
Motivators
Intrinsic factors
related to the
doing of the
job itself
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Hygiene-Factors
Extrinsic factors
related to conditions
surrounding
the job
Hygiene factors must be
satisfied first, leading to a
state of being neither
satisfied nor dissatisfied
Job Characteristics Model
Core Job
Characteristics
•
•
•
•
•
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Feedback
Autonomy
Critical Psychological States
Outcomes
• Experienced
meaningfulness
of the work
• Experienced
responsibility for
outcomes of the work
• Knowledge of the actual
results of the work
activities
High:
• Internal work
motivation
• “Growth”
satisfaction
• Work effectiveness
• General job
satisfaction
Process Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Focus
How different variables
can combine to
influence the amount
of effort put forth by
employees.
Theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Equity Theory
Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their
own circumstances to those of others
• Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.)
• Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks,
etc.)
• Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome
versus that ratio of another person or
people
Equity Theory
IF:
IS:
The ratio of
Equal to the
my outcomes ratio of the
to my inputs other’s
outcomes to
inputs
THEN: AND I AM
MOTIVATED TO:
I am
satisfied
The ratio of
Less then
I feel
my outcomes (<) the ratio dissatisfie
to my inputs of the other’s d
outcomes to
inputs
Do nothing.
Choose between:
• Increasing my own
outcomes
• Decreasing my own inputs
• Reevaluating the other’s
inputs
• Changing the referent
from Exhibit 10.8
• Leaving theAdapted
situation
Expectancy Theory
• Focuses on thought processes people use when
faced with choosing among alternatives
• Three variables affect motivation:
– Effort-to-performance (E  P): probability that certain
effort leads to certain performance
– Performance-to-outcome (P  O): probability that
certain performance leads to certain outcome
– Valence (V): anticipated value that a person attaches
to the outcome
Effort = (E  P) x (P  O) x V
Components of Expectancy Theory
Outcome
Effort
(V: I do or do not
value recognition
from my supervisor)
Performance
E P
(I believe high effort
will lead to good
performance)
E = effort
O = outcome
PO
(I believe high performance
will lead to recognition
from my supervisor)
P = performance
V = valence
Social Cognitive Theory
Self-efficacy:
• A person’s confidence that he or she can
accomplish a given task in a specific
situation
• Three dimensions:
– Magnitude, strength, and generality
• High self-efficacy beliefs are associated
with better work-related performance
Social Cognitive Theory:
Methods to Increase Self-efficacy
Enactive
Mastery
Vicarious
Learning
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Verbal
Persuasion
Physiological or
Psychological
Arousal
Adapted from Exhibit 10.10
Goal-Setting Theory
• Human action is directed by conscious
goals and intentions
• Two basic premises:
– More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if
accepted, result in higher levels of effort than
easier goals
– Specific goals result in higher levels of effort
than vague goals
The Role of Reinforcements
and Consequences
Motivation
Technique
To encourage
good behavior
or performance
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
To discourage
poor behavior
or performance
Punishment
Extinction
Reinforcements and
Consequences
• Desirable consequences that
increase the likelihood of
behavior being repeated in
the future
• Rewards given should be:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Equitable
Efficient
Available
Not exclusive
Visible
Reversible
Positive
Reinforcement
Example:
• Salesperson
performs
well gets an
extra bonus
for the year
Reinforcements and
Consequences
• Removal of
undesirable
consequences that
increase the
likelihood of behavior
being repeated in the
future
Negative
Reinforcement
Example:
• Salesperson
who performs
well is removed
from territory
that has difficult
customers
Reinforcements and
Consequences
• Unwanted consequences
following undesirable
behavior to decrease the
likelihood that it will be
repeated
Punishment
Example:
• Salesperson
who
performs
poorly is
fired or
demoted
Reinforcements and
Consequences
• The absence of
positive consequences
for behavior, lessening
the likelihood of that
behavior in the future
Extinction
Example:
• Salesperson tells
a tasteless joke
and is ignored in
the hopes of
discouraging
such joking
Social Influences on Motivation
Immediate
Work
Group
Motivation
Organization’s
Culture
Supervisors
And
Subordinates
Influence of Values and Attitudes
Toward Work
• Values
– Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will
find rewarding and satisfying
• Attitudes toward work
– Work centrality
• Degree of general importance that working has in
the life of an individual
• Differs between cultures