Italian Unification
1815-1870
Revolutions of 1820
• Naples
– Ferdinand
– Church
– Financial problems
– Withdrawal of Austrian garrison
– Sicily
– Carbonari
– Example of revolt in Spain (Jan. 1820)
Revolutions of 1820 contd
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Garrison revolted in Naples (June, 1820)
Leader: Gen. Guglielmo Pepe
Ferdinand I promised constitution (July, 1820)
Pepe appointed to lead new government
Separate rising in Sicily demanding more
autonomy; opposed by Pepe government
• Rising discussed at Congress of Troppau
• Ferdinand attended Congress of Laibach and
asked for assistance in suppressing revolt
Naples 1820 contd
• Rising suppressed by Austrian troops with
diplomatic support from Russia and
Prussia
• Followed by vicious suppression by
Ferdinand’s restored government
Piedmont, 1820-21
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Victor Emmanuel I restored in 1815
Strengthened by addition of Genoa
All French reforms suppressed
Growth of support for Carbonari especially after
Naples rising
• Student riots in Turin (Jan), military revolt (Mar)
forced abdication of Victor Emmanuel
• Charles Albert vs Charles Felix
• Austrian repression
Revolutions of 1831
• Effects of July Revolution in France: “When
Paris sneezes, Europe catches cold…”
• February, 1831: liberal risings in Modena and
Parma; savagely repressed by Duke Francis of
Modena by end of March
• Various uprisings throughout Papal States
during 1831-32 suppressed by Austrian and
Papal forces
Reasons for Failure in 1821 & 1831
• No support from Louis Philippe
• No support from Great Britain
• Weakness of Carbonari
– Isolated groups; no coordination
– Middle class support only
• No mass support for liberalism or
nationalism
• Strength of Austria and Metternich
Il Risorgimento
• Early calls for Italian nation during French
Revolution (eg. Alfieri, Denina)
• Guiseppe Mazzini
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From Genoa
Joined Carbonari in 1827
Arrested and imprisoned in 1830
Rejected Carbonari aims
Founded Young Italy (1831)
Mazzini’s Nationalism
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Strongly believed in God, but not in Church
Believed in individual rights, but also in duties
Believed in equality of men and races
Pledged to create “one, free independent
republican nation” in Italy
• Cooperation with constitutional monarchies was
just a tactical move on the way to the end of a
unitary republic
• Armed revolution  national regeneration
Mazzini, contd
• Organized revolt after revolt, all of them
failures, some of them ridiculously so
• Came to personify the Risorgimento
throughout Italy
• Popularized Italian cause throughout
Europe and America
• Helped create the idea of Italy
Other roads to national unity
• Vincenzo Gioberti and the Papacy
– Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians (1843)
– Proposed Italian federation under leadership of the
Pope since church was fundamental institution in
Italian life"Del primato morale e civile degli Italiani"
– Book sold widely and was generally well-received;
seen as more moderate alternative to Mazzini’s
republicanism, BUT
• Papal States were among most backward and repressive
parts of Italy
• Pope showed no interest in his ideas
Pius IX and Italian Unification
• Elected in 1846; known to have liberal
sympathies
• Elected unexpectedly
• Granted amnesty to all political prisoners
• Proposed reforms to administration, education
and legal systems giving laymen more role
• Ended press censorship
• Sponsored formation of civic guard to protect
property and prevent violence
Pius IX contd
• Proposed customs union with Piedmont and
Tuscany (1847)
• Resisted Austrian attempts to extend garrison
rights in Ferrara
• Initially, seemed favorable to Italian cause
during 1848 disturbances
BUT:
• His intervention against revolutionary change
was an important factor in their failure.
1848 Revolutions
• Causes
– Liberal demands for constitutions
– Unpopularity of Austrians
– Harvest failures in 1846 and 1847
– Reforms in Papal States
– Influence of Mazzini
1848 Revolutions contd
• Revolts in Sicily and Naples (January)
• Sicilians wanted independence from Naples – had taken
over most of island by April
• In Naples, King Ferdinand II agreed to share power with
a parliament but hung on to most of his power
• Ferdinand used excuse of rioting to appoint right-wing
government (May)
• In September, sent troops to re-take Sicily
• Ferdinand abolished all reforms made since January
1848
1848 Revolutions contd
• Tuscany and Piedmont offered limited
constitutions (Feb); constitution revolts in Parma
and Modena
• Tobacco boycott in Milan (Lombardy)  “The
Five Days” (March 17-22) of riots and fighting.
• Due to disturbances and fall of Metternich in
Vienna, Radetsky removed troops from Milan
• Revolutionary provisional government appealed
to Charles Albert for help
• Charles Albert declared war on Austria
• March 22: Independent Republic of St Mark
(Venice)
1848 Revolutions cont’d
• May: Commander of Papal troops marched to
support Charles Albert  widespread belief that
anti-Austrian movement had support of Pope
• Pope made declaration “repudiating… those
who would have the Roman Pontiff to be the
head … of some sort of novel Republic of the
whole Italian people.”
• Nationalist movement began to take on anticlerical character
• July: Austrians defeated Charles Albert at Battle
of Custozza. Charles Albert signed armistice and
withdrew to Piedmont
1848 Revolutions contd
• July: Mazzini arrived back in Italy. Declared “war
of the princes” over and “war of the people” to
begin.
• November: Chief Minister of Papal States
assassinated; Pope fled to Naples; new
government called for representatives from all
over Italy to attend a constituent assembly in
Rome
• Assembly met in Feb. 1849 – Garibaldi was one
of the deputies
• March: Mazzini elected head of Triumvirate to
run government of Roman Republic
1848 Revolutions contd
• Pope appealed for help from France,
Spain and Naples to suppress republic
• New French Republic sent 20,000 troops
to put Pope back on throne
• City defended against great odds by
volunteers led by Garibaldi
• City captured by French troops end of
June, 1849
1848 Revolutions contd
• March 1849: Charles Albert denounced
armistice and went to war with Austria again
• April 1849: heavily defeated at Battle of
Novara; abdicated in favor of son, Victor
Emmanuel II
• May-June 1849: Austrian troops defeated
revolutionary governments in Tuscany,
Modena and Parma
• August 1849: Venice surrendered to
besieging Austrian forces.
Why did the 1848 Revolutions Fail?
• Lack of unity between different groups
– Sicilians and Neapolitans
– Manin refused to send representatives to Roman
Constituent Assembly
– Attitude of Charles Albert
– No recognized national leader (Pope, Charles Albert,
Mazzini??) or nationalist ideology
• Inexperience of provisional governments
• Little or no popular support (no land reform, no
social reform)
Positive Effects of 1848 Revolutions
• Helped create “Italian national mythology”
(heroic defense of Rome by Garibaldi,
Venice by Daniel Manin)
• Established constitutional monarchy in
Piedmont
• Eliminated Papacy as alternative focus of
national aspirations
• Established Piedmont and Savoy Dynasty
as sole defender of national dream
Cavour and Italian Unification
• Austria didn’t insist on territorial compensation after Novara – believed
this, or forcing return to absolutism, might play into hands of nationalist
republicans
• Thousands of nationalist and liberal refugees flooded into Piedmont
(20,000 in Genoa alone) and influenced domestic politics
• Count Camillo di Cavour became member of Piedmont parliament in
1848
• Supported the “middle way” between radical (Mazzini) nationalists and
absolutism and reaction
• Appointed Minister of Trade and Agriculture in 1850, Prime Minster in
1852
• Brought in series of reforms including: state railroads, reducing customs
duties, encouragement of agricultural improvement, founding of state
savings banks
• Trade doubled during the 1850s
• Attacked power of Church as “impediment to social progress”
• Used bribery, chicanery and shady political deals to maintain his
majority
Cavour contd
Foreign Policy
• Participation in Crimean War
– No vital Sardinian interests involved
– Brought Piedmont benefits:
• Sympathy from Britain and France
• Gave Piedmont seat at Paris Peace Conference at
which she could push Italian interests
• Split Austrians and Russians
Cavour contd
• Cavour & Napoleon III
– Assassination attempt by
Felice Orsini (Jan. 1858)
– Napoleon allowed publication
of Orsini’s letter to him from
condemned cell
– July 1858: Cavour & Napoleon
met at Plombieres
Cavour contd
The Plombières Agreement
– France would join Piedmont in a
“defensive” war against Austria
– Piedmont would annex Lombardy, Venetia,
Parma and Modena
– Napoleon III’s cousin, Prince Napoleon,
would marry Victor Emmanuel II’s
daughter
– France would get Nice and Savoy from
Piedmont
Plombières Agreement contd
(After that, it all gets a bit vague – not stated clearly
at all)
– Piedmont might get northern Papal States
(Romagna)
– Overthrow of Ferdinand in Naples might see the
throne pass to Lucien Murat
– Pope might be made head of new Italian
Confederation
– French (Bonaparte) candidate might be made
King of Central Italy (including part of Papal
States and Tuscany)
Franco-Austrian War (1859)
• Pressure from GB & Russia forced Napoleon to give
demobilization order and agree to international congress
to discuss Italy
• Austria issued ultimatum to Piedmont demanding
immediate disarmament
• This alienated GB so Napoleon was again able to
mobilize and then attack Austria
• Invading army: 200,000 French, 63,000 Piedmontese
• Won bloody battles at Magenta and Solferino in June
• July: Napoleon agreed separate peace with Austria at
Villafranca which only gave Piedmont Lombardy
Villafranca Terms
• Austria ceded Lombardy (except Mantua and Peschiera)
to France – France would then transfer it to Piedmont
• Rulers of Central Duchies would return as part of a
confederation under Pope, but no force could be used to
enforce this
• No mention of Nice and Savoy
• Meanwhile, in Parma, Modena and Romagna,Luigi Farini
(ex-education minister under Cavour and later minister of
commerce) declared himself dictator of “Emilia” and
called for incorporation under Victor Emmanuel
• Bettino Ricasoli, another Cavour ally, did same in
Tuscany.
Franco-Austrian War (1859) contd
• Why did Napoleon III stop short?
– Appalled by loss of life at Magenta and Solferino
– Piedmont had supplied only 1/3rd of 100,000 troops
promised
– Piedmontese agents were active in Tuscany and the
Papal States trying to arrange “spontaneous” popular
risings demanding incorporation into Piedmont
– Napoleon didn’t want to see a united Italy: “I will not
have [Italian] unity… France would not be pleased to
see rise beside her a great nation which might
diminish her preponderance”
– Worried by signs that Prussia might exert pressure on
behalf of Austria
Franco-Austrian War (1859) contd
• Cavour resigned (July, 1859) in protest when Victor
Emmanuel II refused to continue war alone
• Elected assemblies in Modena, Tuscany, Parma and
Romanga voted for incorporation into Piedmont
• Cavour returned to power (Feb, 1860) and did deal with
Napoleon III (Treaty of Turin, March, 1860): France
would agree to incorporation of Central Italy into
Piedmont, Piedmont would cede Nice and Savoy to
France
• Plebiscites to confirm deal – probably rigged – held in
March-April, 1860
Cavour’s Plans in 1860
• Cavour recognized that Mazzini’s National War of
Liberation was not a realistic option
• Piedmontese expansion into the leading Italian power
could only come about with support of larger European
powers, especially France
• France was only likely to support Kingdom of Northern
Italy under Victor Emmanuel; not likely to support further
expansion
• Cavour probably wanted to stop and consolidate after
annexation of Central Italy
• “I omitted nothing to persuade Garibaldi to drop his mad
scheme”
Garibaldi and Cavour
• In March, 1860, Garibaldi was considering an
armed expedition to Nice to prevent
incorporation into France
• Disliked and mistrusted by Cavour – Garibaldi
seizure of Southern Italy might lead to demands
for united republican Italy
• Premature establishment of united Italy might
precipitate French and Austria intervention
• By 1860, Cavour probably saw unification as
“historically inevitable” but favored caution
The Sicilian Revolt
• Started in Palermo, April
4, 1860
• Led by Crispi & Pilo
(Mazzini republicans)
• No support from Cavour
• Supported by peasants
demanding land reform
• Garibaldi stole two ships
in Genoa and sailed with
1000 volunteers to help
rebels
• Cavour certainly didn’t
help Garibaldi; historians
divided as to how much
he hindered
• By May 30 had captured
Palermo and forced
surrender and withdrawal
of royal troops
• Cavour even more
worried by prospect of
invasion of Naples
Invasion of Naples
• “If Garibaldi crosses over to the mainland and seizes the
Kingdom of Naples … he becomes the master of the
situation. King Victor Emmanuel loses more or less all
his prestige; in the eyes of the great majority of Italians
he is no more than Garibaldi’s friend. With the resources
of a kingdom of nine million inhabitants at his disposal,
surrounded as he is by irresistible popular prestige, it is
impossible for us to struggle against him.”
• Garibaldi invaded on August 22; on September 6, king
fled and Garibaldi’s troops occupied Naples
• Garibaldi clearly intended to pursue defeated Neapolitan
troops into Papal States and unite Italy…
Cavour’s Reaction
• September 12th: having stirred up unrest in the Papal
States, Cavour informed the powers that Piedmont would
be obliged to intervene to restore order!
• Defeated Papal troops at Castelfidardo and occupied all
the Papal States except Rome itself
• At Teano (near Naples) Garibaldi met Victor Emmanuel
and agreed to hand over his conquests to him (October 26)
• Plebiscites in Naples, Sicily and Papal States voted for
incorporation into a Kingdom of Italy under Victor
Emmanuel II; essentially, Piedmont had annexed the rest
of Italy!
• Thus the Kingdom of Italy now covered all Italy except
Venice and Rome.
Completion of Unification
Venice
• Two attempts by Garibaldi’s followers to foment
uprisings (1862 and 1864) failed
• In 1865, the Italian government offered to buy
Venetia from the Austrians; rejected
• April, 1866: military alliance with Prussia which
would give Italy Venetia in return for help in war
against Austria
• Defeated on land (Custozza) and at sea (Lissa)
• Prussian victory at Sadowa  cession of
Venetia
Completion of Unification, contd
Rome
• Garibaldi attempted to add Rome to Italy
twice (1862 & 1867) but failed because
– Opposed by Piedmont
– No support from local population
– Presence of French troops