UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
FACULTY OF ARTS
Department of Communication Science
Communication Science 2
ACOM211
Lecturer:
J.M. Magagula
Tel:
(035) 902 7036
Email:
jmagagul@pan.uzulu.ac.za / mfanasibili@gmail.com
Richards Bay Campus Office No. A2-42 2nd Floor
_________________________________________________________
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Table of Contents
STUDY UNIT 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1
DEFINING COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2
ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 6
1.3
ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION .................................. 8
1.4
SAMPLE RESEARCH TOPICS IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION ......................................... 8
1.5
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION: WHAT’S IN IT FOR YOU? ................................................. 8
1.6
PREVALENCE OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS ...................................................................................... 9
1.7
CHANGING NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS .................................................................................... 9
1.8
REALITIES OF DIVERSE WORKFORCE ............................................................................................. 9
1.9
ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION ........................................ 10
1.10
KREPS’ ETHICAL GUIDELINES....................................................................................................... 10
1.11
THREE IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTS .............................................................................................. 10
1.12
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION (WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION) .............................................. 11
1.13
EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION (PUBLIC COMMUNICATION)....................................................... 11
1.14
RESEARCH INTO ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION .................................................. 11
1.15
THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION .......................... 12
1.15.1 Classical Approach ................................................................................................................... 12
1.15.2 Human Resources Approach .................................................................................................... 12
1.15.3 Systems Approach.................................................................................................................... 13
1.15.4
Cultural Approach ............................................................................................................... 13
STUDY UNIT 2 .............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2 DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION / COMMUNICATION CHANNELS .............................................. 16
2.2.1
Formal Channels.................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.2
Informal Channels ............................................................................................................... 16
2.3
HIERARCHIES (BUREAUCRACY) ................................................................................................... 16
2.4
FLOW OF INFORMATION AND EFFECT OF STRUCTURE ON COMMUNICATION ......................... 18
2.4.1
Downward Communication ................................................................................................ 18
2.4.1.1
Barriers to effective downward communication ................................................................ 19
2
2.4.2
Upward Communication ..................................................................................................... 19
2.4.2.1
Basic purposes..................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2.2
Types of messages in upward communication ................................................................... 20
2.4.3
Lateral/Horizontal or Sideways Communication ................................................................ 20
2.4.3.1
Purpose of Lateral Communication .................................................................................... 21
2.4.3.2
What Managements Needs to Decide ................................................................................ 21
2.4.3.3
Barriers to Lateral Communication ..................................................................................... 22
2.4.4
Diagonal Communication .................................................................................................... 22
2.5
THE INFORMAL COMMUNICATION OR ‘GRAPEVINE’ ................................................................. 22
2.5.1
Major functions of the ‘grapevine’ ..................................................................................... 23
2.5.2
Attributes to the ‘grapevine’............................................................................................... 23
2.6
JOB SPECIALIZATION ................................................................................................................... 23
2.7
PATTERNS OF AUTHORITY .......................................................................................................... 24
2.8
SPAN OF CONTROL ...................................................................................................................... 25
2.9
THE PROS AND CONS OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION DESIGN ............................................... 26
2.10
MEETINGS AND COMMITTEES .................................................................................................... 26
STUDY UNIT 3 .............................................................................................................................................. 28
3.1
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS................................................................................................... 28
3.2
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS................................................................................... 29
3.2.1
The Circle............................................................................................................................. 29
3.2.2
The Wheel ........................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3
The Y-Channel ..................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.4
The Chain ............................................................................................................................ 32
3.2.5
The All-channel ................................................................................................................... 33
3.3
INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATION ROLES IN AN ORGANIZATION .................................................. 34
3.3.1
Gatekeepers ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.3.2
Liaisons (bridge) .................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.3
Opinion Leaders .................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.4
Cosmopolites....................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.5
The isolated ......................................................................................................................... 35
STUDY UNIT 4 .............................................................................................................................................. 36
4.1
FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................. 36
3
4.1.1 The Informative Function........................................................................................................... 36
4.1.2 The Regulatory Function ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1.3 The Integrative Function ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1.4 The Persuasive Function ............................................................................................................ 37
4.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................ 37
STUDY UNIT 5 .............................................................................................................................................. 38
5.1 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CULTURE................................................................................................... 38
5.2 EXPLORING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE.......................................................................................... 38
5.3 CLASSIFYING CULTURES .................................................................................................................... 39
5.4 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE .................................................................................... 39
5.5 DRAW BACKS OF CULTURE ............................................................................................................... 40
5.6 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THE CORPORATE CULTURE? ........................................... 41
5.6.1 Understanding The Culture of An Organization Facilitates: .......................................................... 41
5.6.2 Can Corporate Cultures be Changed? ............................................................................................ 43
5.7 CULTURE AND SUCCESS ........................................................................................................................ 44
5.8 FORMAL COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CULTURE .......................................................... 44
5.9 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CLIMATE ....................................................................................................... 45
5.10 CLIMATE IN ORGANIZATIONS ............................................................................................................. 45
5.11 CULTURE AND CLIMATE COMPARED .................................................................................................. 45
STUDY UNIT 6 .............................................................................................................................................. 47
6.1 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE........................................................................................................ 47
6.2 WHAT IS CHANGE MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................ 47
6.2.1 What Are The Differences Between Change And Transition? ....................................................... 47
6.2.2 Leading and Managing Change ...................................................................................................... 48
6.3 WHY IS ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE DIFFICULT TO ACCOMPLISH? ............................................ 48
6.4 KOTTER’S EIGHT-STAGE PROCESS FOR CREATING MAJOR CHANGE .................................................... 49
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STUDY UNIT 1
1.1 DEFINING COMMUNICATION
Communication may be defined as - “A process of sharing facts, ideas, opinions, thoughts and information
through speech, writing, gestures or symbols between two or more persons”. This process of
communication always contains messages, which are to be transmitted between the parties. There are two
parties - one is ‘Sender’, who sends the message and the other ‘Receiver’, who receives it. Generally the
process of communication is said to be complete when the receiver understands the message and gives
the feedback or response. All these activities of sharing or exchanging information, ideas and experiences
between two or more persons are known as communication.
Communication is seen as the integral process of the management function itself. Employees are often
described as the greatest assets of an organization. Therefore, workplace communication requires
employees with good interpersonal skills from the societies. Communication value may be created through
four factors, content (what), presentation (how), place (where) and time (when).
Communication is frequently divided into the following levels:

Interpersonal communication

Group level communication

Organizational level communication

Inter-organizational level communication

Mass communication.
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1.2 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication is a specialization area which developed in the field of communication
studies during the late 1940s and early 1950s. This started as a response to the following:
2.1 need for organizations to become more efficient and productive in order to serve the needs of the
society.
2.2 the importance of organizational communication in businesses, industrial organizational,
government agencies, churches, hospitals, academic institutions and so on.
An organization is made up of people who work together to reach specific goals/common purpose which
otherwise cannot be reached by individuals working on their own. Organizational communication is the
necessary communication that takes place to achieve those goals or common purpose.
There are six major characteristics that make organizations different from other groupings:

people do different jobs and have different responsibilities

here will be one or more places where power is held

each post in an organization may be filled by a number of different people

different sections of the organization depend on each other

different sections of the organization work together to coordinate their activities

different sections of the organization work together on a regular basis
Organizational Communication Definition:
“Communication is the basis for the way in which an organization functions”
Communication plays a critical role in most every aspect of organizational life. A business is a group of
people organized around a common goal.
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
Organization - Greek origins

Organon - “tool” or “instrument”
Communication is both the means by which the tool or instrument (the organization) is created and
sustained and the prime coordinating mechanism for activity designed to attain personal and organizational
goals.
“…the process of creating, exchanging, interpreting (correctly or incorrectly), and storing messages within a
system of human interrelationships.”
“…the exchange of oral, nonverbal, and written messages within (and across the boundaries of) a system
of interrelated and interdependent people working to accomplish common tasks and goals within an
organization.”
Organizational communication is defined as “the central binding force that permits coordination among
people and thus allows for organized behavior,” and it is argued that “the behavior of individuals in
organizations is best understood from a communication point of view.” Therefore, communication is not
only an essential aspect of these recent organizational changes, but effective communication can be seen
as the foundation of modern organizations.
Organizations are held together by communication (lifeblood of organizations). When people gather
together to begin to organize, they need to make plans, arrive at decisions and settle disputes.
Organizational communication is an umbrella term for all the communication processes that occur in the
context of an organization.
Organizational communication involves thinking to yourself (intrapersonal) communication between a
manager and an employee (dyadic communication or interpersonal communication), meetings (small
group) public speeches (public communication/relations), mass communication (press release, company
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newsletters, new product announcements) and digital communication (e-mail messages to staff members
and other organizations or information obtained from the internet).
All these forms of communication takes place both inside (internally) and outside (externally) an
organization.
1.3 ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
 Communication is central to the existence of the organization
 Organizational communication is a complex process (creating, exchanging, interpreting, and
storing messages)
 Misunderstandings occur
1.4 SAMPLE RESEARCH TOPICS IN ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Information Dissemination / Message Flow

Relationship Creation, Maintenance, and Termination

Process of Organizing

Message Privilege and Power

Optimal Information (overload, underload)

Effective Channels

Impact of Technology

Workplace Democracy

Influence of Organizational Structure

Team Interaction

Organizational Culture
1.5 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION: WHAT’S IN IT FOR YOU?

Better equipped to address contemporary workplace issues.
o Development of a temporary workforce
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o Implementation of teams
o Adoption of new technologies
o Multiculturalism

Trained to focus on the complex and collaborative nature of communicating, organizing and
knowing

More articulate about ideas.

Understand the task of organizing individuals, groups, projects, and thoughts.

Knowing/Learning how to learn.
1.6 PREVALENCE OF MISUNDERSTANDINGS

Paradigms

More levels of hierarchy

More work teams with more members

Cultural, age, sex, gender, religious, and value differences

Power struggles

Sub- and counter organizational cultures

Competition for scarce resources

Impersonal communication media
1.7 CHANGING NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS
Shift from . . .

hierarchical (tall) to decentralized (flat) structures

climate of authority (control) to climate of coaching (support through performance feedback)

analog to digital (computerized information technology)

regional or national competition to global competition
1.8 REALITIES OF DIVERSE WORKFORCE

“Diversity in the workplace encompasses a variety of personal and social bases of identity,
including race-ethnicity, gender, age, socio-economic status, and country of origin.”
9

Diversity must be seen as a positive characteristic of the work environment
1.9 ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Must be defined within the unique culture of a particular organizational environment.

“There is something inherently present in any modern organization that facilitates unethical or
immoral conduct”
1.10 KREPS’ ETHICAL GUIDELINES

Organization members should not intentionally deceive one another. (Trust)

Organization members’ communication should not purposely harm any other organization member
or members of the organization’s relevant environment. (Do No Harm)

Organization members should be treated justly (Justice)
1.11 THREE IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTS

Organizational Identification (process & product)
– An active process by which individuals link themselves to elements (people, policies,
products, services, customers, values) in the social scene.
– Involves an individual’s sense of membership in and connection with an organization.

Job Satisfaction
– The degree to which employees feel fulfilled by their job and related experiences.
– A pleasurable or positive emotional state from the appraisal of one’s job or experiences
– Linked to absenteeism and turnover

Communication Satisfaction
– The degree to which employees feel that communication is appropriate and satisfies their
need for information and work relationships
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1.12 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION (WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION)
Internal communication refers to the messages that are shared among members of an organization. It is
usually concerned with work-related matters and provides the means for people to work together and cooperate with each other. Internal organizational communication practices (newsletters, presentations,
strategic communications, work direction, performance reviews, and meetings) as well as externally
directed communications (public, media, inter-organizational).
1.13 EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION (PUBLIC COMMUNICATION)
An organization does not exist in isolation. It is an element in the structure of society and must adapt to
social needs and changes in order to survive. It may want to change its image in the community, for
example, advertise a new product. Organizations establish external communication channels to gather
information from the world outside it and to provide this world with information about the organization.
1.14 RESEARCH INTO ORGANIZATIONATIONAL COMMUNICATION
The purpose of research in organizational communication is to help organizations operate at maximum
efficiency. Areas of research include:

theoretical approaches to organizational communication;

the structure of organizational communication; and

the functions of organizational communication
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Why are these areas important to the management of organization?
1.15 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
1.15.1 Classical Approach

It started during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th and early 20th centuries when assembly-line
technologies developed for factories were applied to other types of organizations as well.

It emphasizes the importance of efficient management and high productivity.

In the classical approach, communication functions mainly to establish managerial control, provide
workers with job instructions and enable managers to gather information for planning.

Communication flows from management to subordinates (top down)

There is sharp distinction between private and work lives of employees. What happens at home in
of no concern to management even if it has an effect on the employees work.

It regards the organization as a machine, and the people as merely cogs who work in the machine.

The role of the individual is not very important because, like part of the machine, any worker can be
removed and be replaced without unduly disrupting the smooth running of the organization.
1.15.2 Human Resources Approach

This approach developed during the 50s in response to the shortcomings of the human relations
theory.

According to this approach, workers are considered to be the sources of suggestions and ideas,
and it is the management’s task to encourage people to contribute to the organization in diverse
ways and thereby maximize productivity.

It stresses participative decision making and effective employer-employee relations.

It maintains that workers are more motivated, productive and independent, and more satisfied with
their work when they are consulted about decisions that directly affect their work activities.

The human resource school emphasizes genuine participation by all employees. Their ideas and
suggestions are sought and encouraged and decision making is not limited to higher management
only, but is encouraged at all levels of the organization.
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
Frequent communication is considered a necessity and it is the management’s task to arrange
group discussions, develop skilled communication and leadership skills, and to motivate individuals
towards the achievement of personal and organizational goals.
1.15.3 Systems Approach

This approach considers the organization as a whole (system) made up of separate parts, each of
which has a relationship to all the other parts and to the environment in which it exists.

All the systems parts are dependent on one another in the performance of organizational activities.
Any change in one component inevitably affects the other system components.

All the parts of the system must therefore coordinate their activities and functions in order to remain
in a state of equilibrium or balance.

Internal communication channels have to be effective and provide relevant information.

External communication channels must allow a free, open and rapid flow of information between
the organization and the society in which it exists.

Feedback channels have to be established to gather information that will allow it to adapt to the
needs and changes in the environment.

Communication is crucial to the organization because it is a unifying element that allows the
system to function efficiently, achieve its goals and remain in a state of balance.
1.15.4 Cultural Approach
Culture defined……..“a system of shared values (what is important) and beliefs (how things work) that
interact with the company’s people, organizational structures, and control systems to produce to produce
behavioural norms (the way we do things around here)” (Utall, 1983:66).

Every organization has its own cultural identity because every organization has a particular way of
doing what it does and its own way of talking about what it is doing.

There are three components that contribute to the culture of the organization:
o Corporate identity;
o Corporate image; and
o Corporate personality
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
Corporate identity: the way in which an organization chooses to present itself to the public through,
for example, letterheads, colour schemes, logos and so on.

Corporate image: the way in which the public perceives the organization.

Corporate personality: comprises all the characteristics that contribute to the uniqueness of an
organization, such as original ideas that individual members contribute and the slogans that
characterize the organization.

It is important for organizations to make their employees aware of the organizational culture
because they become aware of how they are expected to behave. An understanding of culture can
also help bridge cultural gaps that exist in organizations.

The organization should strive to create a common culture (shared values and beliefs) to which all
employees adapt. The culture then has a unifying function in that it is the basis for collective sensemaking activities by people in the organization – “the way we do things here”
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STUDY UNIT 2
2.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The framework, typically hierarchical, within which an organization arranges its lines of authority and
communications, and allocates rights and duties. Organizational structure determines the manner and
extent to which roles, power, and responsibilities are delegated, controlled, and coordinated, and how
information flows between levels of management.
A structure depends entirely on the organization's objectives and the strategy chosen to achieve them. In a
centralized structure, the decision making power is concentrated in the top layer of the management and
tight control is exercised over departments and divisions. In a decentralized structure, the decision making
power is distributed and the departments and divisions have varying degrees of autonomy. An
organizational chart illustrates the organizational structure.
In this context, structure refers to the components of the communication system in an organization and
includes channels of communication through which information is sent and received, the hierarchies in the
organization, and the flow of information in the organization and communication networks. There are tall
structures for carefully controlled flow of information and flat structures which allow for much less control.
The term organizational structure refers to the formally prescribed pattern of relationships existing between
various units of an organization. An organization’s structure typically is described using a diagram, known
as an organizational chart. Such diagrams provide graphic representations of the formal pattern of
communication in an organization. An organization chart may be likened to an X-ray showing the
organization’s skeleton, an outline of the planned, formal connections between individuals in various
departments or units.
An organizational chart consists of various boxes and the lines connecting them. The lines connecting the
boxes in the organizational chart are lines of authority showing who must answer to whom – that is,
reporting relationships. Each person is responsible to (or answers to) the person at the next higher level to
which he or she is connected. At the same time, people are also responsible for (or give orders to) those
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who are immediately below them. The boxes and lines form a blueprint of an organization showing not only
what people have to do (jobs performed including appropriate job titles), but with whom they have to
communicate for the organization to operate properly.
2.2 DIRECTIONS OF COMMUNICATION / COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
The structure of an organization should provide for communication in three distinct directions: downward,
upward, and horizontal. These three directions establish the framework within which communication in an
organization takes place.
Channels of information in an organization can be described by distinguishing between the formal and
informal flow of information.
2.2.1 Formal Channels
These are official channels through which communication is exchanged. Formal channels may be written or
oral and include personal instructions, interviews, training programmes, letters, memoranda and oral
reports.
2.2.2 Informal Channels
Information is also exchanged unofficially during conversations among employees. Such information may
be work-related or may be concerned with social and personal matters. Informal channels may at times
prove to be more effective means of communication than the organization’s formal channels.
2.3 HIERARCHIES (BUREAUCRACY)
The principle of hierarchy states that every member of an organization has one individual in a position
above him or her from whom he or she receives directions. This boss also has a boss who in turn also has
a boss; the organizational hierarchy is so structured as to form a king of pyramid, with authority and power
concentrated at the top. It does not necessarily indicate the locus of power, but only shows the positions of
individuals and their authority.
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The hierarchical structure of an organization is often depicted in an organizational chart, a linear diagram
showing the status of different members of an organization and the relationship among them. The
organizational chart is also called an ‘organogram’.
While the chart cannot capture the total dynamics of human interaction, it nevertheless provides much
information in a useful way, partly because the organization usually has come to consider relationships in
terms of the dimensions of the chart. One of its purposes is to provide stability, regularity, and predictability
to the organization. This is one of the reasons why, in a society such as South Africa , where rapid social,
political and economic change are imperatives on the national agenda, organizations are finding change
difficult and demanding.
Example of a structure:
Leader of Company
Manager Research
Manager Planning
Deputy Research
Deputy Planning
Assistant
Assistant
Research
Planning
Worker
Worker
Sweeper
Worker
Worker
Messenger
Figure 2.1: Example of a structure
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The presence of the structure in an organization makes human behaviour different from that occurring in
other contexts. The hierarchy affects the interpersonal relations of its employees and controls the channels
of communication within the organization. The hierarchy also controls the frequency and quality of daily
interactions among people.
2.4 FLOW OF INFORMATION AND EFFECT OF STRUCTURE ON
COMMUNICATION
The flow of information refers to the direction in which messages travel in the organization. How does the
structure affect communication behaviour? Generally, the organizational structure limits and guides
communication flows. Knowing the structure of an organization (from its chart or organogram) can help
predict a great deal about the nature of the communication flows within it.
2.4.1 Downward Communication
This is communication from higher levels of the hierarchy to the lower levels. These are more frequent that
other forms of communication flows. Communication from superior to the subordinate takes place more
easily than the other way round.
Traditional views of the communication process in school organizations have been dominated by downward
communication flows. Such flows transmit information from higher to lower levels of the school
organization. School leaders, from central office administrators to building-level administrators,
communicate downward to group members through speeches, messages in school bulletins, school board
policy manuals, and school procedure handbooks.
The downward flow of communication provides a channel for directives, instructions, and information to
organizational members. However, much information gets lost as it is passed from one person to another.
Moreover, the message can be distorted if it travels a great distance from its sender to the ultimate receiver
down through the formal school organization hierarchy. Downward communication (manager to
subordinate) has eight basic purposes:

to describe the organization’s goals, philosophy and mission

describe the organization’s ethical standpoint
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
describe general policies and procedures

describe employee’s relationship with the organization/company

instruct people on how to do a job

give information on how one job is related to others being performed in the organization

give people feedback on how successful previous jobs have been

give departments and individuals feedback on their general performance
2.4.1.1
Barriers to effective downward communication

managers are not sure what type of messages to pass downwards

managers are not sure how much information to pass downwards

organizations have problems with functional literacy of their staff

too much information is sent down
NB: Functional literacy refers to the person’s ability to read and prepare the messages necessary for a
specific job. Messages that enable managers to function as managers for example managers must be able
to:

read a long complex financial report containing graphics

prepare a monthly report

prepare letters and memoranda in the right style and tone

prepare and deliver short, persuasive talks to customers

talk on the phone
2.4.2 Upward Communication
In a school organization, this refers to communication that travels from staff member to leader. This is
necessary not only to determine if staff members have understood information sent downward but also to
meet the ego needs of staff. Upward communication refers to messages sent from the lower levels of the
hierarchy to the upper levels, for example, from worker to supervisor, to manager. It is usually related
concerned with job-related activities, what needs to be done, solving problems, making suggestions,
measuring success and improving morale.
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In short, the upward flow of communication in a school organization is intended to provide channels for the
feedback of information up the school hierarchy. Some deterrents may prevent a good return flow, but there
are ways to promote more effective administrator-staff communications.
2.4.2.1
Basic purposes

feedback to management on worker morale

feedback on progress of tasks

to receive suggestions from staff

to receive proposals from staff
2.4.2.2
Types of messages in upward communication

oral and written reports

memoranda

proposals

spoken and written suggestions
2.4.3 Lateral/Horizontal or Sideways Communication
Lateral communication refers to messages between equals – manager to manager, worker to worker
(people at the same level of the hierarchy).
Horizontal flows of communication are more frequent than vertical flows. This is because
Individuals communicate more openly and effectively with their equals than with their superiors.
Upward and downward communication flows generally follow the formal hierarchy within the school
organization. However, greater size and complexity of organizations increase the need for communication
laterally or diagonally across the lines of the formal chain of command. This is referred to as horizontal
communication. These communications are informational too, but in a different way than downward and
upward communication. Here information is basically for coordination — to tie together activities within or
across departments on a single school campus or within divisions in a school-wide organizational system.
Horizontal communication falls into one of three categories:
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1. Intradepartmental problem solving. These messages take place between members of the same
department in a school or division in a school-wide organizational system and concern task
accomplishment.
2. Interdepartmental coordination. Interdepartmental messages facilitate the accomplishment of joint
projects or tasks in a school or divisions in a school-wide organizational system.
3. Staff advice to line departments. These messages often go from specialists in academic areas,
finance, or computer service to campus-level administrators seeking help in these areas.
In brief, horizontal communication flows exist to enhance coordination. This horizontal channel permits a
lateral or diagonal flow of messages, enabling units to work with other units without having to follow rigidly
up and down channels. Many school organizations build in horizontal communications in the form of task
forces, committees, liaison personnel, or matrix structures to facilitate coordination.
External
communication flows between employees inside the organization and with a variety of stakeholders outside
the organization. External stakeholders include other administrators external to the organization, parents,
government officials, community residents, and so forth. Many organizations create formal departments,
such as a public relations office, to coordinate their external communications.
2.4.3.1
Purpose of Lateral Communication

helps the sharing of insights, methods and problems

it coordinates the various activities of the organization enabling the various divisions to pool
insights and expertise

it can build worker morale and worker satisfaction
2.4.3.2
What Managements Needs to Decide

who is to be informed of which department’s activities

the amount of detail to be reported
21

the medium to be used for this type of communication
2.4.3.3
Barriers to Lateral Communication

rivalry between departments means that they withhold information from each other

departments become very specialized and people from other departments cannot understand their
technical terms

departments become isolated and staff are not motivated to communicate with other departments

departments build their own small empires, reluctant to share their knowledge and resources with
other departments
Organizational structure influences communication patterns within an organization. Communications flow in
three directions—downward, upward, and horizontally. Downward communication consists of policies,
rules, and procedures that flow from top administration to lower levels. Upward communication consists of
the flow of performance reports, grievances, and other information from lower to higher levels. Horizontal
communication is essentially coordinative and occurs between departments or divisions on the same level.
External communication flows between employees inside the organization and a variety of stakeholders
outside the organization.
2.4.4 Diagonal Communication
This type of communication occurs between employees in a different section and where one of the workers
involved is on a higher level in the organization. For example, when a bank manager at the head office
converses with a teller in a branch of the bank.
2.5 THE INFORMAL COMMUNICATION OR ‘GRAPEVINE’
Sometimes staff in an organization finds that the prescribed patterns of communication do not give them
the information they want. They will then establish their own informal communication system. This system
22
is common when people work closely together. The grapevine conveys information about people and their
attitudes and relationships. It also carries interpretations of events, predictions about the organization
moves, people’s values and needs.
2.5.1 Major functions of the ‘grapevine’

it serves as a barometer regarding the organization and gives vital feedback to management

it is most active when there are great changes in the organization

it helps members of an organization to make sense of what is going on as messages travel through
the ‘grapevine’, management’s messages are translated into words that make sense to workers
2.5.2 Attributes to the ‘grapevine’
There are three specific attributes of the grapevine that make it important and useful:

it is fast

it is accurate: 75% – 90% accuracy for non-controversial information

it carries a great deal of information, information that would not fit in the formal channels of
communication
Organizing, the process of structuring human and physical resources in order to accomplish organizational
objectives, involves dividing tasks into jobs, specifying the appropriate department for each job, determining
the optimum number of jobs in each department, and delegating authority within and among departments.
The framework of jobs and departments that make up any organization must be directed toward achieving
the organization’s objectives.
2.6 JOB SPECIALIZATION
As a general rule, specialization increases worker productivity and efficiency. On the other hand, delegating
jobs increases the need for managerial control and coordination.
23
Specialization has its own set of problems; it can result in workers performing the same tasks over and over
again. A point can be reached where the degree of specialization so narrows a job’s scope that the worker
finds little joy or satisfaction in it. Signs of overspecialization include workers’ loss of interest, lowered
morale, increasing error rate, and reduction in service and product quality. One solution to this problem is to
modify jobs so that teams can perform them.
Some establishments use teams regularly throughout the organization; others use teams more selectively.
Teams can be directed by a manager or can be self-managed. The idea behind self-managed work teams
is for workers to become their own managers, which increases their self-reliance as well as develops a
talent pool.
2.7 PATTERNS OF AUTHORITY
The delegation of authority creates a chain of command, the formal channel that defines the lines of
authority from the top to the bottom of an organization. The chain of command specifies a clear reporting
relationship for each person in the organization and should be followed in both downward and upward
communication. Following the chain of command enables each new employee, no matter what his or her
position, to know exactly for whom and to whom he or she is responsible.
When designing an organizational structure, managers must consider the distribution of authority. Defined
simply, authority is the organizationally sanctioned right to make a decision. Authority can be distributed
throughout an organization or held in the hands of a few select employees. Decentralization is the process
of distributing authority throughout an organization. In a decentralized organization, an organization
member has the right to make a decision without obtaining approval from a higher-level manager.
Centralization is the retention of decision-making authority by a high-level manager.
24
Decentralization has several advantages. Managers are encouraged to develop decision-making skills,
which help them advance in their careers. The autonomy afforded by this style of operation also increases
job satisfaction and motivation. When employees are encouraged to perform well, the profitability of the
organization increases.
2.8 SPAN OF CONTROL
Span of control refers to the number of people who report to one manager or supervisor. A wide span of
control results in a flat organization— that is, a large number of employees reporting to one supervisor.
A narrow span of control results in a tall organization, in which a small number of employees report to a
supervisor, necessitating a larger number of supervisors.
The following factors determine the most appropriate span of control: task similarity, training and
professionalism, task certainty, frequency of interaction, task integration, and physical dispersion. When a
large number of employees perform similar tasks, the span of control can be increased. When the
employees perform very different tasks, the supervisor must give each subordinate more in individual
attention in order to keep in touch with the different types of tasks; this requires a narrower span of control.
Task certainty refers to the predictability of a task. Routine tasks allow management to devise standard
procedures for subordinates to follow, minimizing questions about the job and widening the span of control.
On the other hand, close supervision is called for when tasks are ambiguous and uncertainty is great.
If the supervisor-subordinate relationship requires frequent interaction, the span of control must be narrow.
If interaction is infrequent, the span of control can be wide.
The ideal number of people that one person can supervise depends on a variety of factors: consistent with
trends in organizational structure such as teams, quality circles, and employee empowerment. The
25
objective behind these trends is to develop a flatter, more responsive organizational structure in which
employees can make decisions without going through several levels of management.
2.9 THE PROS AND CONS OF FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION DESIGN
The most important strength of a functional organizational design is efficiency. The performance of
common tasks allows for work specialization, which increases overall productivity. Workers develop
specialized skills and knowledge more rapidly. Training is easier because of the similarity of tasks and the
resulting opportunities for inexperienced workers to learn from experienced workers. This helps new
employees quickly learn the kinds of behavior that lead to success and promotion.
Coordination of activities within functional departments is easier than in more broadly based organizations.
A functional organization fosters efficiency, teamwork, and coordination of activities within individual units.
However, the functional organization’s most important strength is also the source of its greatestshortcoming.
2.10 MEETINGS AND COMMITTEES
An organizational chart is useful in identifying the formal reporting and authority relationships. However, it is
not of much help in coordinating administrative units at the department and sub-department level.
Diversity means the organization must respond to a workforce that is heterogeneous sexually, racially, and
chronologically; innovation and conflict/communication issues; and different styles of interaction, dress,
presentation, and physical appearance. Flexibility in the modern hotel organization means assuring that
systems, processes, and people can respond differently to different situations; fewer detailed rules and
procedures; greater autonomy and encouragement of initiative; customizing employment relationships to
include telecommuting and job-sharing; and lifetime employability rather than lifetime employment.
26
The four basic components of organizational structure include job specialization, departmentalization,
patterns of authority, and span of control. Job specialization includes increased worker productivity and
efficiency, but it increases the need for managerial control and coordination. Work teams can be used to
alleviate the routine caused by job specialization. A similar concept, the quality circle, can also enhance
employee productivity.
The level of coordination and communication between departments can be increased by the activities of
committees.
Successful staffing depends on providing adequate job descriptions, including job specifications, as well as
realizing that job descriptions must be flexible. In some cases, it becomes necessary to redesign jobs; this
can involve job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and flextime. Employees must be properly
trained; effective training includes problem solving, problem analysis, quality measurement, feedback, and
team building.
Successful managers enjoy certain common characteristics including providing clear direction, feedback,
and recognition; encouraging open communication and innovation; and establishing ongoing controls.
27
STUDY UNIT 3
3.1 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Flows of communication can be combined into patterns called communication networks. These networks
are interconnected by communication channels. A communication network is the interaction pattern
between and among group members. A network creates structure for the group because it controls who
can and should talk to whom.
Groups generally develop two types of communication networks: centralized and decentralized.
Decentralized networks allow each group member to talk to every other group member without restrictions.
An open, all-channel or decentralized network is best used for group discussions, decision making, and
problem solving. The all-channel network tends to be fast and accurate compared with the centralized
network such as the chain or Y-pattern networks.
Figure 3.1: Communication networks
28
3.2 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Wheel: In this, all communication flows through one person who generally happens to be the group
leader.

Y-Pattern: The y pattern is slightly less centralized –two persons are closer to the centre of the
network.

Chain: The chain gives a flow of information among members, although the people are at the end
of the chain.

Circle: Here, each person can communicate with two others located on both of his sides.

All Channel (Star): This pattern is more decentralized and, allows a free flow of information among
all group members.
3.2.1 The Circle
Figure 3.2: Circle communication network

has no leader, all members have the same authority

each member communicates with two members on either side
29

communication is limited
3.2.2 The Wheel
Figure 3.3: the wheel network

has a central leader who sends and receives messages from all the members

all messages go through the leader

it has rapid performance of tasks but the error rate is high because two way communication is
discouraged

the leader suffers from communication overload
30
3.2.3 The Y-Channel
Figure 3.4: The Y-channel

there is also a clear leader, third person from bottom

second person from bottom plays the secondary leadership role who can send and receive
messages from two others

the remaining three members are restricted to communicating with only one other person
31
3.2.4 The Chain
Figure 3.5: The Chain network

it is similar to the circle except that the members on the ends communicates with only one person
each

the middle position is more leader-like than any of the other positions
32
3.2.5 The All-channel
Figure: 3.6: The all-Chanel network

the all-channel or star pattern is like a circle in that all members re equal and all have exactly the
same amount of power to influence others

each member may communicate with any other member

there’s all member participation and is more likely to solve any problem requiring the pooling of
information held by network members

information and communication management becomes more difficult
Awareness of the potential networks in an organization provides insight into what type of information is
likely to be received by which people. In a University, for example, policy decisions made by the senate
about course curricular will be networked among deans of faculties and department heads (central figures),
but not among the rest of the university staff (peripheral figures).
33
Current research into communication networks examines the impact of computer technology in
organizations as computers increasingly perform essential information processing functions for all
employees at all levels of the organizations.
3.3 INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATION ROLES IN AN ORGANIZATION
Certain individuals play special roles in the flow of organizational messages.
3.3.1 Gatekeepers

regulate the flow of information

decide what information will be sent to other members of the network

it can prevent information overload by filtering and screening messages
3.3.2 Liaisons (bridge)

form links between various groups

receive more feedback and have more opportunities to deal with others in their jobs
3.3.3 Opinion Leaders

have greater access to external and expert sources of information, and their function is to bring the
group into touch with the relevant environment

they apply the two step flow model of communication
3.3.4 Cosmopolites

they give information to surrounding groups or other businesses

they bring vital information to the network about the activities of the environment within which the
organization works
34
3.3.5 The isolated

works on her/his own separated from the group

they run the risk of being not able to work properly
35
STUDY UNIT 4
4.1 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
This is concerned with the purposes that communication serves and its effects on people and activities in
the organization.
4.1.1 The Informative Function

provision of information to ensure the efficient operation of the organization

management and employees need accurate, timely and well-organized information to enable
them to do their work efficiently, make decisions and resolve conflicts

organizations must also obtain information in order to adapt to environmental changes

regular meetings enable people to exchange information about each area of the organization,
with a view to directing and co-coordinating behaviour towards implementing organizational
changes
4.1.2 The Regulatory Function

serves to control and regulate the activities of the organization to ensure its successful operation

manuals, policies, memoranda, rules and instructions constitute a set of guidelines for the
management of the organization
4.1.3 The Integrative Function

is used to achieve organizational unity and cohesion by creating identity in the organization

well defined goals and tasks to facilitate the assimilation of new members,

integrative messages are used to coordinate the work schedule of individuals, groups and
departments, thereby eliminating wasted time and efforts
36
4.1.4 The Persuasive Function

the way communication influences members of an organization

managers have discovered that persuasion is often more effective than authoritarian methods to
gain employees’ cooperation

similarly, employees may use persuasion when, for instance, requesting an increase in salary
4.2 CORPORATE COMMUNICATION
These are activities undertaken by an organization to communicate internally with employees and
externally with existing and prospective customers and the wider public. Sometimes it is used to refer
principally to external communication and sometimes to internal communication, but strictly speaking, it
covers both. The term implies an emphasis on promoting a sense of corporate identity and presenting a
consistent and coherent corporate image. Organizations can strategically communicate to their audiences
through public relations and advertising. This may involve an employee newsletter or video, crisis
management with the news media, special events planning, building product value, and communicating
with stakeholders, clients and donors.
4.2.1 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Internal defined as all kinds of interaction that takes place between members of one big or small
organization. Research surveys consistently show one that poor workplace communication is a major
source of employee dissatisfaction. The repercussions of this include not just low employee morale,
Employee productivity suffers, along with a range of other business performance indicators.
Communication should therefore satisfy key employee needs before they can be engaged and highly
productive. Internal communication may be looked at from different perspectives, formal or informal, from
employer to workers or from workers to the employer
37
STUDY UNIT 5
5.1 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CULTURE
A single definition of organizational culture has proven to be very elusive. No one definition of
organizational culture has emerged in the literature. One of the issues involving culture is that it is defined
both in terms of its causes and effect. For example, these are the two ways in which cultures often defined.
1. Outcomes- Defining culture as a manifest pattern of behavior- Many people use the term culture to
describe patterns of cross individual behavioral consistency For example, when people say that
culture is “The way we do things around here,” they are defining consistent way is in which people
perform tasks, solve problems, resolve conflicts, treat customers, and treat employees.
2. Process- Defining culture as a set of mechanisms creating cross individual behavioral consistencyIn this case culture is defined as the informal values, norms, and beliefs that control how
individuals and groups in an organization interact with each other and with people outside the
organization.
Both of these approaches are relevant to understanding culture. It is important to know on what types of
behavior culture has greatest impact (outcomes) and how culture works to control the behavior of
organizational members.
Organizational culture is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its
problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered
valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation
to those problems.
5.2 EXPLORING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Attempts to define organizational culture have adopted a number of different approaches. Some focus on
manifestations – the heroes and villains, rites, rituals, myths and legends that populate organizations.
Culture is also socially constructed and reflects meanings that are constituted in interaction and that form
commonly accepted definitions of the situation.
38
Culture is symbolic and is described by telling stories about how we feel about the organization. A symbol
stands for something more than itself and can be many things, but the point is that a symbol is invested
with meaning by us and expresses forms of understanding derived from our past collective experiences.
The sociological view is that organizations exist in the minds of the members. Stories about culture show
how it acts as a sense - making device.
Culture is unifying and refers to the processes that bind the organization together. Culture is then
consensual and not conflictual. The idea of corporate culture reinforces the unifying strengths of central
goals and creates a sense of common responsibility.
Culture is holistic and refers to the essence – the reality of the organization; what it is like to work there,
how people deal with each other and what behaviours are expected. All of the above elements are
interlocking; culture is rooted deep in unconscious sources but is represented in superficial practices and
behaviour codes. Because organizations are social organizationms and not mechanisms, the whole is
present in the parts and symbolic events become microcosms of the whole.
5.3 CLASSIFYING CULTURES
One way of exploring cultures is to classify them into types.
1. Role Cultures – are highly formalized, bound with regulations and paperwork and authority and
hierarchy dominate relations.
2. Task Cultures – are the opposite, the preserve a strong sense of the basic mission of the
organization and teamwork is the basis on which jobs are designed.
3. Power Cultures – have a single power source, which may be an individual or a corporate group.
Control of rewards is a major source of power.
5.4 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
1. Behavioral control
2. Encourages stability
3. Provides source of identity
39
5.5 DRAW BACKS OF CULTURE
1. Barrier to change and improvement
2. Barrier to diversity
3. Barrier to cross departmental and cross organizational cooperation
4. Barrier to mergers and acquisitions
Corporate culture is the personality of the organization: the shared beliefs, values and behaviours of the
group. It is symbolic, holistic, and unifying, stable, and difficult to change.
It is important to remember that the corporate culture is not the ideals, vision, and mission laid out in the
corporate marketing materials. Rather, it is expressed in the day-to-day practices, communications, and
beliefs. According to Borgatti (1996) a strong culture:

Is internally consistent

Is widely shared, and
 Makes it clear what appropriate behavior is.
Whenever human beings gather and particularly when individuals with a common purpose begin working
together, work strategies and thinking processes will develop and an organizational culture will be created.
Put more simply, corporate culture is the way things get done in an organization. It is what drives action in
the organization, guiding how employees think, act and feel. It is the systematic set of assumptions that
define day-to-day working behaviour. “Culture can be described in a circular fashion where philosophy
expresses values; values are manifest in behavior; and behavior gives meaning to the underlying
philosophy. Philosophy, values, and behavior describe an organization’s culture and culture is the glue that
holds the organization together.” (DeWitt, 2001).
According to BOLA (2001) culture is the shared beliefs, values and norms of a group and it includes:

the way work is organized and experienced

how authority exercised and distributed

how people are and feel rewarded, organized and controlled

the values and work orientation of staff
40

the degree of formalization, standardization and control through systems there is/should be

the value placed on planning, analysis, logic, fairness etc

how much initiative, risk-taking, scope for individuality and expression is given

rules and expectations about such things as informality in interpersonal relations, dress, personal
eccentricity etc

differential status

emphasis given to rules, procedures, specifications of performance and results, team or individual
working
In the beginning corporate culture is shaped by the leaders and by the purpose for with the company has
been created. It then develops within the constraints of the environment, technology, values of the
leadership, and performance expectations. “The initial culture is altered by the design variables of the
company, experiences of the company, management’s leadership style, the structure of the company, the
nature of the tasks of the groups, the way decisions are made, and the size of the company. In addition, the
developing culture is affected by the internal integrity of the company, the climate, and how well the
company is competing in the marketplace, its effectiveness.
5.6 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THE CORPORATE CULTURE?
Corporate culture is a hidden mechanism of coordination directing each individual towards the common
goal. The goal and the ways of achieving the goal cannot be changed without understanding key attractors
and drivers in the culture. The causes of many profitability and responsiveness issues in corporations are
not found in the structure, in the leadership, or in the employees. The problems are found in the cultures
and sub-cultures of the organization.
5.6.1 Understanding The Culture of An Organization Facilitates:

Hiring employees that will succeed in the organization (lowering recruitment, development, and
human resource maintenance and management costs).
o “the culture of an organization affects the type of people employed, their career
aspirations, their educational backgrounds, their status in society.” (BOLA, 2001)
o “the only trustworthy predictor of on-the-job success is how closely an individual’s work
habits match the organizational culture…” (Giles, 2000)
41

Creating policies and assignments to increase profitability and respond to market demands. Having
a firm grasp of a company’s culture and its nuances gives an executive the edge.
o “New policies and assignments should consider the organizational culture and should be
communicated in a manner congruent to the existing work strategies and beliefs. Learning
how to communicate to the above listed tendencies can give an executive enormous
power. “(Giles, 2000)
o “If the organization wants to maximize its ability to attain its strategic objectives, it must
understand if the prevailing culture supports and drives the actions necessary to achieve
its strategic goals.” (Hagberg & Heifetz, 2000)

Making significant changes to the corporation in response to real threats to its continued existence.
o “Understanding and assessing your organization's culture can mean the difference
between success and failure in today's fast changing business environment” (Hagberg &
Heifetz, 2000)
o “Many companies have turned themselves around, converting imminent bankruptcy into
prosperity. Some did it through financial gimmickry, but the ones who have become stars
did it by changing their own culture.” (Toolpack, 2001)
o “The power of cultural change is strong - strong enough to turn an aging dinosaur into a
state-of-the-art profit-maker… Because people working in different cultures act and
perform differently, changing the culture can allow everyone to perform more effectively
and constructively.” (Toolpack, 2001)

Facilitating mergers, joint ventures, and acquisitions.
o Being able to merge and reinvent corporate cultures plays a critical role in national and
international takeovers, joint ventures and mergers. If the cultures cannot be merged or
reinvented then the business will fail. (Wilms, Zell, Kimura and Cuneo, 1994) Decisions to
form joint ventures are made on economic grounds. Their failure to succeed relates to the
key noneconomic factor, the corporate cultures involved.

Increasing profitability and growth.
o Understanding, shaping, nurturing, and proclaiming cultural aspects can increase
corporate profitability and growth. “Companies that display specific facets of corporate
culture grow 10 times faster than companies that don't. The average net sales growth for
42
so-called high-culture companies is 141 percent, compared with 9 percent growth at "lowculture" companies” (Kosan, 2001)
5.6.2 Can Corporate Cultures be Changed?
Changing a corporate culture is a complex, long-term, and expensive undertaking that will either revitalize
or kill the company. It should not be undertaken lightly. Culture change must be driven by a powerful,
transformational reason: The competition is succeeding and you are not: Your company will fail if it does
not change. “For change to be successful there needs to be a compelling reason to change, a clear vision
of what the change will be, and, a sensible first step.” (Tribus, 2001)
Tan (2001) outlines four instances where corporate cultures need to be changed:
1. When two or more companies of varied backgrounds merge and continuous conflict among people
of different groups are undermining their performance;
2. When an organization has been around for a long time and its way of working are so entrenched
that it is hindering the company from adapting to changes and competing in the marketplace;
3. When a company moves into a totally different industry or areas of business and its current ways of
doing things are threatening the survival of the organization; and
4. When a company whose staff is so used to work under the favourable conditions of economic
boom but could not adapt to the challenges posed by an economic slowdown.
Corporate culture cannot be changed through changing a policy or issuing an edict. It can also not be
accomplished overnight. “The only way to change organizational culture overnight is to fire everyone and
hire a new staff with the working behaviors you now want.” (Giles, 2000) Culture change requires
consistency of message, goal, direction, and leadership to succeed. To change a culture one needs to
change the images and values, the evaluative, and the social elements of the organization. This requires a
strong leader who knows where they want the company to go, why they want it to go there, can articulate
both these points, and who has the power to drive the change throughout the organization. This leader, in
all the proponents of change in the organization, must consistently and obviously “model the behavior they
want to see in others. If they do not send a consistent message and keep that message clear and dominant
over time, cultural change may be seen as just another fad.” (Toolpack, 2001)
43
Given strong leadership, Bijur (2001) has identified the five aspects of a successful change.
Values: values that drive the organization toward the realization of a shared vision.
Motivation: understand what motivates people. Make them stakeholders in the change.
Shared Ideas and Strategies: create an environment that enables the sharing of ideas and strategies and
encourages change.
Goals: clear and unambiguous goals, frequently communicated and discussed. Clear link between
individual and corporate goals.
Performance Ethic: a reward and recognition system that instills in the organization a performance ethic.
5.7 CULTURE AND SUCCESS
Deal and Kennedy (1982) argue that culture is the single most important factor accounting for success or
failure in organizations. They identified four key dimensions of culture:
1. Values – the beliefs that lie at the heart of the corporate culture.
2. Heroes – the people who embody values.
3. Rites and rituals – routines of interaction that have strong symbolic qualities.
4. The culture network – the informal communication system or hidden hierarchy of power in the
organization.
5.8 FORMAL COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CULTURE
Component
1
2
Mission/Vision
Policies
Description
The milestones to be reached
Statements designed to be guidelines
to bahavioural decision
3
Procedures
Methods of providing specific
guidelines
4
Rules
Specific instructions for performing a
task
5
State of Organizational Organization at young, growing,
Development
maturing, or mature stage of
development
Table 5.1: Formal components of organizational culture
Effect on Organizational
Culture
Could be unrealistic
Policies, if not drafted properly
can provide leeway
Can facilitate or create
obstacles in smooth functioning
Rules could be a means or an
end in themselves
State of organizational
development has direct impact
on work culture
44
5.9 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CLIMATE
It is something that is sensed rather than something that is recognized.
Organizational climate is a set if attributes which can be perceived about a particular organization and or its
subsystem, and that may be induced from the way the organization and /or its subsystems deal with their
members and environments.
Organizational climate is the combined perceptions of individuals that are useful in differentiating
organizations according to their procedure and practices.
Organizational climate is the collective view of the people within the organization as to the nature of the
environment in which they work.
5.10 CLIMATE IN ORGANIZATIONS

Unlike culture, the climate in an organization changes quickly and is easier to describe

It describes the present trend of opinions, attitudes or feelings in an organization, and it changes
quickly as the environment changes.

The changes are brought about by three things:
o Styles of management;
o Pressure of work; and
o Available resources.

The climate in a group may change rapidly from a supportive and positive one to a defensive and
negative one. Managers and staff therefore need to be constantly sensitive to the climate in the
group or section.
5.11 CULTURE AND CLIMATE COMPARED



Culture
Lasts a long time
Develops slowly
Depends on a known past of some
length of time



Climate
May change quickly
Develops and changes quickly
Does not depend on known past
45




Operates on a high level of
unconscious assumptions
Collective,
therefore
individual
variations are buried in the culture
Not likely to be affected by short-term
changes
Deeply buried in people’s minds,
therefore relatively invisible and hard to
get at


Operates at a level of attitudes and
values
Unique characteristics of members can
be found

Respond to short term changes

Awareness more accessible
behaviour more visible
and
Table 5.2 Culture and climate compared
46
STUDY UNIT 6
6.1 ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE
Organizational change is often stimulated by a major external force, for example, substantial cuts in
funding, decreased market opportunity and dramatic increases in services. Typically, organizations
undertake technical, structural or strategic shifts in the organization to evolve to a different level in their life
cycle, for example changing from a highly reactive organization to a more stable proactive environment.
6.2 WHAT IS CHANGE MANAGEMENT
Change management is a set of processes employed to ensure that significant changes are implemented
in a controlled and systematic manner. One of the goals of change management is the alignment of people
and culture with strategic shifts in the organization, to overcome resistance to change in order to increase
engagement and the achievement of the organization’s goal for effective transformation. Achieving
sustainable change begins with a clear understanding of the current state of the organization, followed by
the implementation of appropriate and targeted strategies. The focus of change management is on the
outcome the change will produce – the new arrangements that must be understood. Change processes
usually apply to a task and/or structural change, and can be either:
6.2.1 What Are The Differences Between Change And Transition?
Change is a shift in the externals of any situation, for example, setting up a new program, restructuring a
business, moving to new location, or a promotion. By contrast, transition is the mental and emotional
transformation that people must undergo to relinquish old arrangements and embrace new ones
William Bridges (2003:3) explains there are significant differences between change and transition. Change
is the way things will be different, and transition is how you move people through the stages to make
change work.
Change is made up of events, while transition is an on-going process. Change is visible and tangible, while
transition is a psychological process that takes place inside of people. Change can happen quickly, but
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transition, like any organic process, has its own natural pace. Change is all about the outcome we are
trying to achieve; transition is about how we'll get there and how we'll manage things while we are en route.
Getting people through the transition is essential if the change is actually to work as planned.
It is important to ensure that change management strategies are driven by the changes that need to occur,
but not to lose focus on the more personal transition activities needed to ensure the success of the
program.
6.2.2 Leading and Managing Change
The implementation of any significant change process usually succeeds or fails because of the leadership
of that change process.
Management as a discipline focuses on processes and systems that keep the operations of the
organization operating smoothly, while leadership engages people to create, adapt and meet the demands
of the anticipated future.
Management plays an essential part in making the changes happen; it empowers the ‘doing’. Leadership
inspires the transition, it is what energizes people and sustains a change in behaviour and approach.
Leadership engages the hearts and minds of staff.
6.3 WHY IS ORGANIZATIONATIONAL CHANGE DIFFICULT TO ACCOMPLISH?
McKinsey & Co (2006), Shaffer & Thomson (1998), and Corporate Leadership Council (CLC, 2001) site
studies of hundreds of companies that entered significant change programs. Their research indicates that
60% -70% of significant and complex change management programs grind to a halt because of their failure
to produce the hoped-for results. The research identified that failure is not necessarily due to poor technical
solutions; it was the result of poor project planning and change management.
Generally speaking, organizationations face strong resistance to change. People are afraid of the unknown,
many think things are fine the way they are and do not understand the need for change. Recognizing the
need to change, and acting on it, can be difficult decisions for leaders and managers to make.
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Managers are taught to manage processes and resources effectively. Change however requires the
‘management’ of people’s anxiety and confusion, or conversely their excitement and engagement. These
are emotions that most managers find difficult to deal with or address. Managing the change process and
transition emotions is fundamental to the success of a change oriented project.
Many people are inherently cynical about change, many doubt there are effective means to accomplish
major organizational change. Often there are conflicting goals within the organization, for example,
increasing resources to accomplish goals yet cutting costs to remain viable. Organizational change often
goes against the very 7 values held dear by people, that is, the change may go against how they believe
things should be done or diminish ownership of ‘how we do things around here’.
Resistance is a natural defence mechanism for those ‘losing’ something. The closer we are to something or
someone, the greater the grief or loss. Reasons for resisting change are varied. The reasons could include
perceived loss of security, money, pride or satisfaction, friends, freedom, responsibility, authority, good
working conditions, status, lack of respect, objectionable manner, negative attitude, personal criticism, not
having had input, bad timing, challenge to authority or second hand information.
6.4 KOTTER’S EIGHT-STAGE PROCESS FOR CREATING MAJOR CHANGE

Establishing a Sense of Urgency
o Help others see the need for change and the importance of acting immediately
o Examining the market and competitive realities (SWOT matrix)
o Identifying and discussing (potential) crises

Creating the Guiding Coalition
o Make sure there is a powerful group guiding the change, one with leadership skills, bias for
action, credibility, communication skills and authority and analytical skills
o Building teams and forming influential guiding coalitions
o Assemble a group powerful enough to lead & influence the change
o
Getting the group to work together like a team
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
Developing a Vision and Strategy
o Clarify how the future will be different from the past, and how you will make the future a
reality
o Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
o Getting the vision and strategy right (Vision building)
o Developing strategies to achieve the vision

Communicating the Change Vision
o Make sure as many others as possible understand and accept the vision and the strategy
o Using every vehicle possible to constantly communicate the new vision and strategies
(Communication Strategy & Plan, Storytelling Tool)
o Have the guiding coalition role model the behaviour expected of staff

Empowering Broad-Based Action
o Remove as many barriers as possible so that those who want to make the vision a reality
can do so
o Enabling others to act on the vision by getting rid of obstacles, encourage risk taking
o Altering systems or structures that undermine the change vision

Generating Short-Term Wins
o Create some visible, unambiguous successes as soon as possible
o Planning for and generating short term wins / improvements in performance
o Creating those wins
o Recognizing and rewarding those

Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change
o Press harder and faster after the first success
o Not letting up, consolidating improvements and sustain the momentum for change
o Use increasing credibility to change all systems, structures and policies that don’t fit
together and don’t fit the transformation effort
o Hiring, promoting and developing people who can implement the change vision
o Reinvigorating the process with new projects, themes and change agents
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
Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture
o Hold on to the new ways of behaving, and make sure they succeed until they become a
part of the very culture of the group
o Creating better performance through customer and productivity oriented behaviour, more
and better leadership, and more effective management
o Articulating the connections between new behaviours and organizational success
o
Developing means to ensure leadership development and succession
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