An inner state that (more or less) energizes an individual toward fulfillment of a goal, often until that goal is achieved.



Needs
–
–
A state of deficiency
See Maslow’s need hierarchy on next slide
Drives
– Psychological states activated to satisfy needs



Often associated with some kind of arousal
– Increased physiological and/or autonomic activity
For many biological needs, drive satisfaction is regulated by homeostatic mechanisms
See slides 4 & 5





Low-level needs must be meet before trying to satisfy higher-level needs
Safety: security, predictability, and stability at home and work
Esteem: Status, respect, power
Self-actualization:
Fulfill one’s potential


A homeostatic mechanism maintains equilibrium (a steady state) by regulating its own behavior in response to change around a set point


Basic (Biological) Drives and
Motives
–
–
Homeostatic drives


Hunger
Thirst


Sleep
Body temperature regulation
Nonhomeostatic motives

Sex

Threat




Drive Theory
–
–
Physiological needs arouse tension that motivates an action aimed at reducing the tension.
When a particular behavior consistently reduces a drive, that behavior becomes a habit.
Arousal Theory
–
–
But why do people often engage in activities that increase rather than decrease tension?

Skydiving, mountain biking, rock climbing, etc.
People need to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Incentive Theory
–
–
Why do people engage in behavior that have no direct connection with satisfying some biological need?

Pulling an all-nighter for an exam.
The prospect of obtaining valued inducements (e.g., ice cream, grades, money, respect, etc.) pushes people to conceive goals, construct plans, and engage in behaviors in order to gain those incentives.


Performance increases as arousal increases until some optimal level of arousal is reached, after which performance decreases

Yerkes-Dodson law
– PerThere is an optimal level of arousal for peak performance


Pleasure is often associated with driven behaviors, especially adaptive behaviors, like sex.
– Evolution’s way of “sweetening the pot”

Increases the frequency of adaptive behaviors
– As a result, chance of survival is enhanced as is the chance that those genes responsible for the behavior-pleasure link are inherited




Extrinsic motivation
– Behavior is engaged in order to attain an external reward.
Intrinsic motivation
– Behavior is engaged for it’s own sake.

Curiosity, creativity, and play
Sometimes, offering an external reward for an intrinsically motivated behavior can actually decrease the frequency of the desired behavior.
– Why?

Receiving an external reward undermines our feeling that we are doing something autonomously, for ourselves.




Vroom’s expectancy theory
– People are motivated to work hard when

Expect efforts will improve performance
 Expect good performance will be rewarded
 Value the rewards they receive
Generally speaking, incentive programs based on Vroom’s theory improve work performance
However, extrinsic motivation can have a detrimental effect on performance when
–
–
The individual is intrinsically motivated
It is controlling, rather than informative



People want rewards to be equal
– The ratio between inputs and outcomes should be the same for all workers
If people believe that there is inequity they will feel distressed and either
–
–
Restore equity


Work less
Seek a raise
Convince themselves that equity exists



Self-regulation of behavior
– The process whereby people initiate, adjust, or stop actions in order to attain personal goals.
Personal goals
–
–
–
–
Vary from simple to complex and can include either the accomplishment of something positive or the cessation of something negative




Buying my textbook
Stop partying
Start studying
Getting into medical school
Becoming a world-famous medical scientist

Challenging and specific goals that can be broken down into specific subgoals are the most productive
High self-efficacy tends to produce favorable outcomes
With the right approach, parents can instill high achievement motivation in their children





Basic self-regulation works like a homeostatic mechanism (see next slide)
– Requires self-awareness
Delay of gratification
–
–
–
–
Foregoing immediate temptations in order to achieve long-term goals
An important component of self-regulation
An ability that varies across individuals
Strategies for implementation also vary across individuals



Turning hot cognitions into cold cognitions
Ignoring
Self-distraction
The ability to self-regulate depends on a limited pool of resources upon which many other mental and behavioral activities also depend
Frontal lobes of the brain (especially prefrontal cortex) are important for self-regulation

 The TOTE Model
– A TOTE unit is a homeostatic model of self-regulation.
– Negative feedback from discrepancies between current state and ideal standing motivate efforts to reduce the discrepancies.





Need to belong theory
–
–
We engage behaviors that will gain us acceptance by others in our ingroup.
We avoid behaviors that will cause us to be rejected by others in our ingroup.



Incompetence
Unattractiveness
Immorality
– Group members are vigilant to detect those who cheat.
Rejection by our ingroup causes anxiety.
–
People with social support networks tend to be happier and healthier.
From others we get energy, attention, stimulation, information, and emotional support.
– Oftentimes, when miserable, we prefer others that are also miserable.
Stress often intensifies the need for affiliation, oftentimes because of informational needs.


Eating is affected by learning.

– We eat not because we have deficient energy stores, but because it is time to eat.
Sights and smells of familiar, liked foods can induce hunger.

Food preferences are formed by personal and cultural experience




The hypothalamus is the most important brain structure related to hunger and eating.
– Lesions to one specific region of the hypothalamus can cause extreme overeating, while lesions to another specific region can cause extreme undereating
Empty stomach induces eating
– When balloon is inflated in stomach, hunger decreases.
Low levels of glucose detected in the bloodstream induces eating
– Also true for low levels of body fat

This is probably communicated from fat cells to the hypothalamus by the recently discovered hormone leptin.


Defining overweight and obesity

– Body mass index (BMI)

Ratio of weight to height [Kg/(M) 2 ]
– Used to measure obesity

A BMI of 20-25 (e.g., 6’ and 170 lbs. to 6’ and 210 lbs.) is considered average
–
–
A BMI between 25-30 is overweight
A BMI of 30 or over is obese
Body weight is 60-80% heritable
– About the same as intelligence.




Obesity is linked with a number of medical problems
Obesity is linked with a number of psychological problems
–
–
Anxiety is a cause of overeating
Being obese can cause low self-esteem

Prevalence of negative stereotypes of obese individuals
(as “stupid” or “lazy”) is very high in some cultures
Obesity is culturally relative
– Being obese means different things in different cultures



In developing countries, obesity is a symbol of affluence
African-Americans are heavier than white Americans, but are more satisfied with their weight
Contemporary culture is more pre-occupied with weight than in the past


Dieting is a notoriously ineffective means of losing weight.
–
–
The body has a natural defense mechanism against weight loss.

Body weight is regulated in a homeostatic manner around a set point that is genetically determined.
– The lighter you get, the more your metabolic rate slows, making it yet harder to lose more weight.
Binge eating in restrained eaters

“I’ve blown my diet, so I might as well keep on eating.”




Most prevalent in white, North
American women
Anorexia Nervosa: Starving oneself until weight is more than 15% below ideal body weight
–
–
The typical anorexic is a bright, talented, perfectionist who is preoccupied with feeling in control, especially of sexual feelings
Has a distorted body image
Bulimia nervosa: binge and purge

Sexual behavior and motivation
Development of sexual identity
Influences on sexual motivation
Sexual orientation
Development of gender identity
Sex differences




Alfred Kinsey surveys (1948, 1953)
–
–
–
–
90% of men and 50% of women had premarital sex
Virtually all men and women masturbated
50% of men and 26% of women had extramarital affairs
40% of college-aged couples engaged in oral sex
Laumann survey (1994)
–
–
Men are 2 – 3 times more likely to reach orgasm during sex
Women, but not men, are capable of multiple orgasms within a short period of time
Masters and Johnson’s (1966) four stages of the sexual response cycle (see next slide)





All fetuses are genetically male (XY) or female (XX)
The external genitalia, reproductive systems (i.e., internal genitalia), and neural circuitry of all human fetuses begin as female
–
–
External genitalia:

Males: Urethra, penis, scrotum
Females: Urethra, clitoris, labia, vagina

Internal genitalia:


Males: Seminal vesicle, prostate, testes
Female: Ovary, fallopian tube, uterus
At 2-3 months, a gonad (primitive sex gland) develops into testes (male) or ovaries (female)
The release of androgens (e.g., testosterone) by testes causes the development of male external genitalia, male internal genitalia, and neural circuitry

Demonstrations of the organizational effects of hormones



Monkeys pregnant with genetically female offspring were injected with androgen
– Offspring had penises and were more aggressive
Rats pregnant with genetically male offspring experienced high emotional stress during pregnancy
– Offspring produced less androgen, showed unusual hypothalamic development, and showed less maletypical behavior
Hormones are a critical determinant of sexual identity


Beginning at puberty, hormones activate circuits laid down in utero and secondary sex characteristics emerge
–
–
Males: Testosterone causes facial, underarm, and pubic hair growth, lowers voice, stimulates muscular development, and causes genital growth
 Males: first ejaculation; live sperm
Females: Estrogen causes breast development, changes in deposition of body fat, maturation of external genitalia; small amount of androgen causes pubic and underarm hair growth
 Females: menarche (onset of menstruation); live eggs


Hormones may also have a temporary effect on adult sexual desire, arousal, and activity.
–
–
–
–
–
Testosterone is the primary hormone driving sexual behavior in men and women.
Less in primates than in other mammals.
More of an effect on males than females, but not as strong a relationship in males as once believed.
It appears that female sex drive varies across the menstrual cycle.


Sexual appetites (Carter, 1991)
Evaluation of men (see notes pages)
Manner of dress (Haselton et al., 2007)

However, female sexual desire does not decrease after menopause in humans (Atkinson & Hilgard,
2003).



Cultural influences
–
–
Sexual scripts vary across cultures

Beliefs about how a sexual episode should be enacted
– Who makes the first move, whether one should resist, the sequence of sexual acts, and how should one act afterward.
In the USA, sexual behavior has changed as our culture has changed


The age at which both men and women lose their virginity has decreased
The percentage of both men and women losing their virginity at an earlier age has increased
Emotional factors
– The most common cause of low desire in couples seeking sex therapy is marital conflict (Goleman, 1988).


Sexual attitudes and behaviors
– Men > females in

Sexual promiscuity (frequency of sexual behavior and number of partners)

To have sex with anyone I choose

Sex w/o emotional commitment

Permissive attitudes toward casual sex
– See next slide

Sexual interpretation of nonverbal cues
 Fantasies about having sex with multiple partners simultaneously

 When men and women were propositioned by an attractive stranger, men were much more willing than women to agree to have sex or to go home with the stranger.
– Note that not a single woman agreed to have sex.
– Also, note that men were more willing to have sex than to go on a date.


Sexual strategies theory (Buss,
1994)
–
–
Evolutionary perspective: Men and women differ on how they are best able to pass on their genes


Women seek older and more financially secure men (or men who have promise of future success) because women are biologically limited in the number of children they can bear.
Men seek fertile (young and healthy) women because they can father an unlimited number of children. Men also seek sexually faithful women because of paternity uncertainty.
Personal ads reveal that men tend to seek beauty and offer wealth, whereas women tend to offer beauty and seek wealth



Men tend to marry younger women
– This age difference increases with man’s age
Women tend to marry men who are slightly older
– This changes little with age



Men are more concerned about sexual infidelity than women
Women are more concerned about emotional commitment




The degree to which an individual is attracted to persons of the opposite sex
(heterosexuality), the same sex
(homosexuality), or both (bisexuality)
2-4% of men and 1-2% of women consider themselves homosexual
The best predictor of homosexuality is a preference for opposite-sex activities – and a dislike for same-sex activities – as a child
– “sissy” behavior in boys and tomboy behavior in girls




– Feelings of attraction toward same sex typically occurs 3 years before homosexual activity




Identical twins have the highest concordance rates
This suggests a genetic contribution to sexual orientation
Two findings suggest some environmental contribution
–
–
The rate for adoptive siblings is greater than zero
The rate for identical twins is less than 100%

Other findings and theories related to homosexuality



Exposure to hormones, especially androgens, in the prenatal environment
– Girls who were exposed to high levels of testosterone in utero are more likely to report being lesbian in adulthood.
LeVay (1991): larger hypothalamic nucleus in heterosexual men than in gay men
–
–
But no causal direction
 Did a difference in experience cause the difference in hypothalamus size or did the difference in hypothalamus size cause the difference in experience?
Breedlove: rat study indicating spinal nucleus change after environmental change
Bem’s developmental theory of homosexuality
– See next slide

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Genes produce differences in temperament
Differences in temperament means that males might be attracted to “female play”
Nonconforming males view conforming males as different, unfamiliar, arousing, and exotic
At puberty, any individual is more attracted to the more exotic of the two sexes
As a result, a nonconforming male will be attracted to males





Sex: A biological classification based on anatomy and genetics
Gender: The psychological meaning of being male or female
Women pregnant with genetically female offspring took an antimiscarriage drug that promoted a chemical environment in the brain that was similar to that for a male fetus
–
–
The offspring’s sexual identity and upbringing was that for a girl
Outcome: slightly higher frequency of homosexuality and slightly lower ratings of maternal interest
Environment seems more important for gender identity than hormones




Androgen insensitivity
–
–
–
–
–
The body tissues of genetically male fetuses that would normally develop into the external male genitalia are insensitive to androgen and, as a result, develop into female genitalia
Anatomically, they are girls and they are raised as girls
Genetically and hormonally, they are boys
At puberty, the surge of testosterone turns the clitoris-like sex organ into a penis
Outcome: These individuals have little trouble adjusting to a male gender identity
Hormones are more important for gender identity than environment
Intersex





Physical aggressiveness
– Males > females
Verbal aggressiveness
– Females > males
Cognitive abilities
–
–
Males > females at math and spatial tasks
 From junior high on
Females > males at verbal tasks
 At least through high school
Social sensitivity
– Females > males at using nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expression and tone of voice) to determine how others are feeling

Why are men and women
(psychologically) different? Nature!

The presence of testosterone in males
–
–
Linked to higher levels of physical aggressiveness in males
Slows development of left hemisphere and enhances development of right hemisphere, accounting for cognitive
(verbal & spatial) differences
(Benbow, 1988; Geschwind & Behan,
1982; Kimura, 1999)

Why are men and women
(psychologically) different? Nurture!





See pages 508-510 in your book.
Gender Roles
– Sex-typed behaviors promoted by social learning (i.e., socialization).
 For example, girls, but not boys, are encouraged to play with dolls in order to learn nurturing behavior.
Gender Schemas
– Beliefs about men and women that influence the way we perceive ourselves and others.
Gender Stereotypes
– Simplified and exaggerated gender schemas that have a kernel of truth.
Differences in gender identity could explain all the (psychological) differences between women and men.

A Biosocial theory of sex differences

Perceived sex differences are magnified by unequal social roles occupied by men and women (Wood & Eagly, 2002)
Biological, social, economic, and political factors
Social roles
(division of labor)
Role-consistent skills and behaviors
Genderstereotyped social perceptions