How to Properly Conduct
Research

In order for research to be effective and
relevant to society two aspects must be
considered. The first is the proper
conduct of research and how the
methods of research have been carried
out. The second is the appropriateness
of the research process or the ethics of
the study.
Conducting Research
The two most important issues when
conducting research are reliability and
validity.
 Reliability occurs when the research
produces the same results each time
they are applied to the same issue.
 Essentially, the research produces
consistent results.


The Draw a Pig personality test
we did on the first day is NOT
reliable because how a subject
draws a pig will change and the
results will not be consistent.

Bandura’s Bobo doll
experiment is reliable
because Bandura consistently
found that children who saw
the aggressive model copied
the aggressive behaviour.
Validity is when the research measures
what it is supposed to measure.
 Essentially, the researcher has made
sure that there are no extra variables
that could be influencing what is being
researched.

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
A researcher wants to determine
the effects of smoking on lung
health in an industrial city, so he
has participants complete a survey
on their lung health and smoking
habits. He neglects to ask if
participants live near the large coal
power plant.
His study is NOT VALID because
the pollution from the plant could
cause lung problems.


A psychologist wants to study
helping behaviour so she sets up
a field experiment where an actor
fakes distress on a subway train.
To ensure that racism is not
being tested, she runs the
experiment twice, once with a
white actor and once with a black
actor.
Her experiment is VALID
because she has accounted for
an extra variable.

Certain types of research are more
reliable and valid than others. As a
result, a theory will often be tested using
different research methods.
Cause and Effect
Researchers are often looking for causal
relationships, meaning they are looking
for cause and effect.
 For instance, we can say that smoking
CAUSES lung cancer for most cases.
 However, causal relationships are
difficult to find, so often researchers can
only find correlations.

Correlation is the degree to which two
things are related.
 For example, studying for an exam often
results in higher grades on an exam.
This is a correlation and not a causal
relationship as there are many other
variables that effect exam performance.
 For example, there is a high correlation
between mental illness and substance
abuse.

How do we make our research
better?



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There are a number of techniques researchers use to
improve the reliability and validity of their research.
Sample size: It is impossible and impractical to test
an entire population, so a sample of the population is
chosen to take part in the study. The sample size
has to be large enough to represent the population.
Representative Sample: The sample must reflect
most of the society being studied; therefore, it must
include various ethnicities, races, and gender.
If the sample is similar to the society being studied,
the results become generalizable, meaning we can
apply the results to most of the population.


A researcher wants to know
what types of technology
Canadians use the most, but
she only surveys 15 white
women, aged 55-70, in Nova
Scotia.
This study has a poor
representative sample size and
is not generalizable.



A psychologist wants to study
whether or not people will
follow orders from an
authority figure, even if it
means hurting another
person.
At first he only tests white
middle aged males, however
he repeats his experiment
with different groups in
different parts of the world.
His experiment has a good
representative sample size
and is generalizable.

Operational definitions: The researcher
must define what is being studied
(variables). The variables must be
defined in terms of specific, observable
behaviour that can be measured with
precision.


A researcher studies students’
attitudes toward school by
observing one class and noting
when the students were rude to
the teacher.
This research has poor
operational definitions because
we do not know what is causing
the rude comments. Likewise,
what is the definition of rude?


In the Bandura Bobo doll
study the operational
definitions were whether or
not the children engaged in
physically aggressive
behaviour, similar to the
model’s behaviour, after
observing the model.
Here is a specific, observable,
behaviour that can be
measured with precision.

Experimental and control groups: To
improve validity we must run the
experiment twice with two different
samples. The samples must be similar in
every important way except for whether or
not the variable being tested is
manipulated or not. The group that goes
through the experiment with the
manipulated variable is the experimental
group. The group that receives no
treatment is the control group.

In Bandura’s Bobo doll study,
one group watched a model
aggressively play with a bobo
doll. This was the
experimental group. Another
group watched a model play
with the bobo doll in a non
aggressive manner. This was
the control group.
Bias

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
Bias is when the researchers or participants
intentionally or unintentionally influence the
research in order to have a more favourable
outcome.
For example, a teacher’s job performance rating
depends on how her students do on an test. She
cannot help the students while they are writing the
test, but when a student asks for help she
unknowingly gestures to the right answer.
For example, you are filling out a self/peer
evaluation worth 10% of your overall mark. Even
though other group members did more work, you
rate yourself highly because you want a good mark.
To combat bias in research, researchers
are often “blind.”
 Blind experimenters: As much as
possible the person gathering the data
should be unaware of the purpose of the
research.


A researcher wants to test the
effectiveness of a new anti-anxiety
drug. To reduce any bias, he has
two groups. One groups gets the
drug and the other gets a placebo.
The participants and the nurses
giving out the drug do not know
who does or doesn’t get the drug.
The researcher hires an assistant
to assess whether or not anxiety is
being reduced.

Statistical Significance: After the results
have been found, researchers must do
the necessary math to determine if the
results occurred by chance.
Ethics in Psychology
Ethics are rules and guidelines
psychologists must follow in order to
ensure the accuracy of their research
and the physical and mental safety of
their subjects.
 There are many issues around the
appropriateness of research, however;
there are five key ethical concerns to be
addressed.

Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the right of privacy for
subject concerning their participation in
research.
 All steps must be taken to assure that
subjects’ participation is confidential.
 If any possibility exists that someone other
than the researcher may have access to the
data, the subjects must be informed of this
possibility before they consent to
participating. This includes the release of
footage or interviews to the public.

Right to Withdraw

All participants have the right to leave a
study, NO QUESTIONS ASKED, if they
choose to, even if they are being paid to
participate.
Deception
Psychologists should avoid lying to
participants at all times as it violates
informed consent.
 Deception is to be avoided because it
can cause mental stress or physical
harm to participants.

Informed Consent
Potential subjects must understand exactly
what is expected of them during the course
of the research and that the researcher
protects participants from physical and
psychological discomfort, harm, and
danger.
 However, there are studies where informed
consent does not occur because it would
create bias in the study. Eg: naturalistic
observations, field experiments, participant
observations.

As well, there are circumstances where
the subject cannot supply informed
consent because of age or ability. In
that case, the researcher must get
consent from the guardians of the
participants.
 Eg: In the Bandura study, the parents
provided consent.

Debriefing

Participants must be given full
information about all aspects of the
study after they have participated in it, in
order to assure that the participants
leave with a full understanding of the
research’s purpose and receive full
disclosure about how the research will
be used.
Bias

Researchers must avoid subtle biases
that influence results, such as gender,
ethnicity, race, and culture.
Animal Research
Animals are often used in research to study
conditions that would be too dangerous to
subject a human to.
 The ethical issues is whether or not it is
right to subject an animal to operations,
drugs, treatments, or experiments to suit a
human purpose.
 Animal research is allowed, but the
researchers must try to avoid causing
unnecessary harm or discomfort to the
animal.

Animal Rights are still an issue…
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0QX
UHeGeOc