Name: ________________________________________________________________ Mr.Shalaby
Date: _________________________________________________________________ Anthropology
Period: _______________________________________________________________ Collier High
Ecology and Primates
Behavioral Ecology and Fitness
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According to _______________ theory, when the environment changes, natural selection
starts to modify the population’s pool of ____________ material.
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Natural selection has another key feature: the differential ________________ success of
individuals within the population.
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Behavioral ecology studies the evolutionary basis of social ______________.
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It assumes that the ___________ features of any species reflect a long history of
different reproductive ____________ (that is natural selection).
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In other words, biological __________ of contemporary organisms have been
_____________ across the generations because those traits enable their ancestors
to ______________ and reproduce more effectively than their ________________.
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Natural selection is based on _____________ reproduction. Members of the same species
may compete to ______________ their reproductive fitness- their genetic contribution to
future generations.
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Individual fitness is measured by the number of _________ descendants an individual has.
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Illustrating a primate strategy that may enhance individual ___________ are cases in
which male monkeys kill infants after entering a new _____________.
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Destroying the offspring of other males, they clear a place for their own ______________.
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Besides _____________, one’s genetic contribution to future generations also can be
enhanced by ___________, sharing, and other apparently _______________ behavior.
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This is because of inclusive fitness – reproductive success measured by the genes one
share with ________________.
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By sacrificing for their ________ – even if this means limiting their own _____________
reproduction – individuals actually may increase their genetic _____________ (their
shared genes) to the future.
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Inclusive fitness helps us understand why female might invest in her sister’s
offspring, or why a male might risk his life to defend his brother.
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If self-sacrifice perpetuates more of their genes then ____________ reproduction does, it
makes sense in terms of behavioral ecology.
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Such a view can help us understand aspects of primate behavior and social organization.
____________ care always makes sense in terms of reproductive fitness theory, because
females know their ____________ are their own. But it is harder for males to be sure
about paternity.
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Inclusive fitness theory predicts that males will invest most in offspring when they are
surest the offspring is theirs.
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Gibbons, for example, have strict male-female pair ___________, which makes it
almost certain that the offspring are those of both members of the pair.
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Thus we expect male gibbons to offer care and protection to their young, and
they do.
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However, among species and in situations in which a male can’t be sure about his
______________, it may make more sense to invest in a sister’s offspring than a mate’s,
because the niece or nephew definitely share some of that male’s _________.
Sociobiology and Fitness
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“Sociobiology is the study of the evolutionary basis for behavior.”
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Types of Fitness
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Individual fitness is the number of direct _________________ an individual
organism has.
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Inherent in this notion, as seen in terms of natural selection, is the implication
that any individual’s fitness _______________ with that of its conspecifics.
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A model attributing a drive to protect one’s individual fitness to all
_____________ could not explain altruistic or self-sacrificing behavior.
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Inclusive fitness is a theoretical concept developed to account for ______________
behavior and is defined as “reproductive success measured by the representation
[in succeeding generations] of genes one shares with other, related animals”.
Primate Evolution
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The fossil record offers evidence for no more than 5% of extinct types of primates.
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Such small numbers provide the merest glimpse of the diverse ____________ – living
beings- that have existed on Earth.
Chronology
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Based on fossils found in Stratigraphy sequence, the history of ____________ life has
been divided into three main eras:
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The __________ (544-245 m.y.a.): was the era of ancient life –fishes, amphibians,
and primitive reptiles.
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The __________ (245-65 m.y.a.): was the era of middle life – reptiles, including the
dinosaurs.
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The __________ (65 m.y.a. – present) is the era of recent life – birds and
mammals. Each era is divided into periods; the periods, into _____________.
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Anthropologists are concerned with the Cenozoic era, which include two periods:
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Tertiary and _______________.
Each of these periods is subdivided into epochs.
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The Tertiary had five epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, ____________, and
Pliocene.
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The Quaternary includes just two epochs: Pleistocene and ___________, or recent.
Sediments from the Paleocene epoch (65-54 m.y.a.) have yielded fossil remains of
diverse small ___________, including, by the late Paleocene, the earliest known
___________.
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______________ became widespread during the Miocene (23-5 m.y.a.). Hominins first
appeared in the late _____________ (5-2 m.y.a.)
Early Primates
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When the Mesozoic era ended, and the ___________ era began ,around 65 million years
ago, North America was connected to ____________ but not to South America (The
Americas joined around 20 million years ago.)
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Over millions of years, the continents have “___________” to their present location.
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During the Cenozoic, most landmasses had _____________ or subtropical climates.
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The Mesozoic era had ended with a massive worldwide ______________ of plants and
animals, including the _______________.
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____________ eventually replaced _____________ as the dominant large land animals.
Trees and flowering plants soon prolifered.
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According to the arboreal theory, primates became primates by adapting to ____________
life.
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The primate traits and trends discussed previously developed as adaptations to life high
up in the trees.
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A key feature was the importance of _________ over smell.
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Changes in the ______________ apparatus were adaptive in the trees, where depth
perception facilitated _______________.
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Grasping hands and feet were used to crawl along slender _____________, Grasping feet
anchored the body as the primates reached for ____________ at the ends of branches.
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Early primates probably had ________________ died base on foods available in the trees.
Early Cenozoic Primates
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A tiny, complete skeleton from __________, first described in 2013, represents the earliest
known primate.
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The creature was smaller than today’s smallest primate- the ________ mouse lemur of
Madagascar. Named Archicebus archilles.
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Archicebus Archilles weighted no more than 1 ounce, and it had a 5-inch tail that was
longer than its 4-inch body.
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It lived 55 million years ago, when Earth was a natural _________________.
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This finding supports the view that the first primates evolved in __________ – not too
long after the extinction of dinosaurs 66 million years ago.
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Somehow primates crossed open water to reach _________ by 38 million years ago
(Africa remained an island continent until 16 million years ago).
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Archicebus achilles had the feet of a small monkey; the arms, legs and teeth of a very
primitive primate; and primitive skull with very small eyes.
Oligocene Anthropoids
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During the Oligocene epoch (34-23 m.y.a.), ______________ became the most numerous
primates.
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Most of our knowledge of early anthropoids is based on fossils from Egypt’s
___________ deposits.
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This area is a __________ today, but 34-31 million years ago it was a tropical rain
forest.
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The anthropoids of the Fayum lived in trees and ate fruits and seeds.
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Compared with ____________, they had fewer teeth, reduced snouts, large brains, and
increasingly forward-looking eyes.
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Of the Fayum anthropoid fossils, one group is the more ____________ and perhaps is
ancestral to the New World monkeys.
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These proto-monkeys were small (2-3 pounds), with similarities to living marmosets and
_____________, small South American monkeys.
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Another Fayum group seems ancestral to the ______________- Old World monkeys,
apes, and humans.
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In 2013, researchers working in Tanzania’s __________ Rift Basin reported their
discovery of two finds that may be the oldest known ____________ from two major
primate groups.
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_______________ (apes and humans) and Old World monkeys.
Geological dating shows the fossils to be 25.2 million years old, several million years
older than any other confirmed example of an ancient ape or old monkey.
Miocene Hominoids
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Hominoid fossils become abundant during the ___________ epoch (23-5 m.y.a.), which is
divided into three parts:
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Lower or ealier
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Middle
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Upper or later
The Earlier (23-16 m.y.a.) was a warm and wet period, when forests covered East Africa.
The earliest hominoids are here called ____________, or simply apes. Although some of
these may be _____________ to living apes, none is identical, or often even very similar,
to modern apes.
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_____________ is the name for a group (three known species) of early Miocene
protoapes. These ancient apes, which lived in __________, had teeth with
similarities to those of living apes. Below the neck, however, their skeleton was
more _______________. The Proconsul species ranged in size from that of a small
monkey to that of a chimpanzee.
Later Miocene Apes
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During the early Miocene (23-16 m.y.a.), Africa had been cut off by water from
______________ and Asia. But during the middle Miocene, ____________ drifted into
Euroasia, providing a land connection between Africa, Europe and Asia, were various
animals, including hominoids migrated in and out of Africa.
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The most remarkable Miocene ape was _________________- almost certainly the largest
primate that ever lived. Confined to Asia, it persisted for millions of years, from the
Miocene until 400,000 years ago, when it coexisted with members of our own genus,
Homo erectus.
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Some people think Gigantopithecus is not extinct yet, that we know it today as the
________ or Bigfoot (sasquatch).
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With a fossil record consisting of nothing more than _______________ and teeth, it is
difficult to say for sure just how big Gigantopithecus was.
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Based on ratios of jaw and tooth size to body size of other apes, various reconstruction
have been made.
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All reconstructions agree, however, that Gigantopithecus was the _____________
ape that ever lived.
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There were at least __________ species of Gigantopithecus: one coexisted with H.
erectus in China and Vietnam, and the other, much earlier (5 m.y.a.), lived in
northern ______________.
Pierolapithecus Catalaunicus
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In 2004, ______________ anthropologists announced their discovery of what may be the
last common _____________ of humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.
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This ape species, named __________________ Catalaunicus, lived around 13 million years
ago, during the middle Miocene.
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The found comes from a rich fossil site near the village of ________________ de Pierola
in _________________, Spain.
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The find appears to represent a single adult male that weighted about ______ pounds.
Like chimps and gorillas, Pierolapithecus was well adapted for tree climbing and
_____________-walking on the ground.
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Several features distinguished Pierolapithecus from the lesser apes (gibbons and
siamangs) and monkeys.