Senior Research Paper
Writing Effective Arguments
What is a written argument?
What is a reasonable tone in an argument?
What part does audience play in my argument?
How do I choose a topic for an argument?
How do I develop a claim and a thesis statement for my argument?
What is the structure of a classical argument?
Why might I need to define key terms?
What types of appeals can provide support?
How do I support my argument?
How do I handle opposing arguments?
What is a written argument?
• A Persuasive Essay:
– To CONVINCE a reader to agree with you or
the stand you’ve taken on a topic open to
debate
• Taking a Position (making a claim)
• Defending a Position (supporting your claim)
• Written arguments are different from the arguing
people do in everyday life.
– Not based on anger
• No Name-Calling
– Not based on emotion
What is a reasonable tone
in an argument?
• Fair-Minded
– Respect the other side (name-calling shows poor judgment)
– Anticipate opposing positions
• Balanced
– Refute opposition with balanced language and emphasis
• Careful word choice (not careless & harsh)
• No Slang
• 3rd-Person
“It’s not what you say, but how you say it.”
What part does audience play
in my argument?
• Your PURPOSE: to convince your audience to agree with
you or to be open to your position (to see your side of the
argument)
• The more emotionally charged a topic, the greater the
chance that any position argued will elicit either strong
agreement or strong disagreement.
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–
–
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Abortion
School Prayer
Gun Control
Racial Profiling
• Consider the degree of agreement you can
expect to receive from your audience.
– A hostile audience?
– A friendly, open-minded audience?
Academic audiences
expect a higher standard.
Beware of logical fallacies.
How do I choose a topic
for an argument?
• Must be open to debate
• Take a position (make a claim) about a debatable topic.
• For your essay, select only one side to defend, but
keep the opposing side in mind.
•
•
•
•
•
TOPIC (FACT): Students at Calhoon College must study a foreign language.
DEBATABLE: Should Calhoon College require students to study a foreign language?
PRO Claim/Assertion (one side of the argument): Calhoon College should require
students to study a foreign language.
CON Claim/Assertion (the other side of the argument): Calhoon College should not
require students to study a foreign language.
These claims eventually become thesis statements.
How do I develop a claim and a
thesis statement for my argument?
• CLAIM / ASSERTION: a statement that expresses a
point of view on a debatable topic.
– A starting point; a focus for your thinking
• Rarely finds its way (word for word) into essay
– Gets reworded/rewritten to become Thesis
Statement
– Must be supported
• Facts
• Statistics
• Quotes
(all property cited & documented, of course)
How do I develop a claim and a
thesis statement for my argument?
• EXPLORE the topic
– Don’t rush
– Consider all sides
• Good Strategy = Create a 2-column list:
– One Column: PRO (“for”)
– Other Column: CON (“against”)
How do I develop a claim and a
thesis statement for my argument?
• EXAMPLE:
– TOPIC: Wild animals as domestic pets
– PRO (“for”) CLAIM/ASSERTION:
People should be allowed to own wild animals.
Don’t make
the
PRO/CON
set-up
more
complicated
than it is.
Keep it
simple.
– CON (“against”) CLAIM/ASSERTION:
People should not be allowed to own wild animals.
NOTICE:
The Topic does NOT need to be a
complete sentence, but the
Assertion DOES need
to be a complete sentence.
***from Claim/Assertion
to Thesis Statement
•
TOPIC: Private ownership of wild animals
•
•
PRO (“for”) CLAIM/ASSERTION: People should be allowed to own wild animals.
CON (“against”) CLAIM/ASSERTION: People should not be allowed to own wild
animals.
•
POSITION (“SIDE”) TAKEN: I think private ownership of wild animals should not
be allowed.
•
1st DRAFT OF THESIS STATEMENT: It is bad for private citizens to own wild
animals.
•
2nd DRAFT OF THESIS STATEMENT: To eliminate what few people realize are
increasingly dangerous situations for people and animals alike, ownership of wild
animals as pets needs to be made completely illegal.
•
FINAL DRAFT OF THESIS STATEMENT: To eliminate
dangerous situations for both people and animals,
policymakers need to ban private ownership
of wild animals as pets.
What is the structure of a classical
argument?
I.
Introduction
(THESIS = last sentence)
II.
Problem (longest section of essay; provide support)
III.
Solution (use supporting ideas/details)
IV.
Rebuttal (introduce and defeat opposing points)
V.
Conclusion (reword Thesis)
VI.
Works Cited (a minimum of 6 sources;
alphabetical order)
There are
many ways to
structure
an
argumentative
essay, but this
is a standard
format
to follow.
Why might I need to
define key terms?
• Key Terms = the words central to an
essay’s topic & message
• Open to interpretation
– Freedom
– Democracy
– Truth
– Justice
• Avoid quoting from a dictionary
for academic writing.
What types of appeals
can prove support?
•
LOGICAL Appeal (“logos”):
– Use sound reasoning (synthesis of readings/research)
– Distinguish between fact & opinion
– Avoid logical fallacies
•
EMOTIONAL Appeal (“pathos”):
– Use in conjunction with Logical Appeal
– Appeal to the heart vs. the mind
– Enlisting the emotions of the reader/audience
• Appeal to audience’s “better self”:
– sympathy, pride, values, beliefs, etc.
• Create a mental picture (using concrete details/examples) to make the
audience see/feel the importance of your claim
– Use honestly, with restraint
•
ETHICAL Appeal (“ethos”):
– Establish the credibility of the writer
• A knowledgeable person with good sense
– Don’t state opinions as facts, distort evidence,
or make claims that can’t be supported.
How do I support my argument?
• Before you start, ask yourself:
WHY DO I BELIEVE MY CLAIM?
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–
–
–
–
–
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Reasons
Examples
Evidence
Facts
Statistics
Expert testimony
Experience
Use quoting/paraphrasing
with correct MLA style
How do I handle
opposing arguments?
• The Purpose for Rebuttal: Refute opposing arguments to show why
they are weak or undesirable (and you are correct)
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–
–
–
–
Look especially for missing or contradictory facts
Look for emotional appeal v. logical appeal
Redefine key terms
Explain the negative consequences of the opposing position
Concede an opposing point, but explain that doing so does not destroy
your own argument  then, go beyond . . .
– Explain that the costs of the other position are not worth the benefits
• Look for essays, articles, and opinions that oppose your position, not
only ones that agree with yours.
• If you cannot find research, develop ideas yourself: Imagine that
you’re debating someone who disagrees with you; what positions
would they take & why?
• Brainstorm with classmates,
family, friends, etc.
QUESTIONS ?