Chapters 5 & 6
Motivation Concepts
and Applications
1
What Is Motivation?
Motivation: A willingness to do some act,
conditioned by the action’s ability to satisfy
some need for the person.
Need: A physiological or psychological
deficiency that makes certain outcomes
appear attractive to the person.
(Note: P = M x A)
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Theories of Motivation
• Content (or Need) Theories: Attempt to
tell us what motivates people.
– Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory
– McGregor’s Theory X and Y
– Herzberg’s Theory
– McClelland’s Theory
– Job Design Model
3
Theories of Motivation
• Process Theories: Attempt to tell us how
motivation takes place.
– Expectancy Theory
– Goal Setting Theory
– Behavior Modification (Learning) Theory
– Equity Theory
4
Content Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy
5
Content Theories: McGregor’s X & Y
Theory X Workers
Theory Y Workers
• Dislike work
• View work as natural
• Must be threatened
with punishment
• Self-directed
• Avoid responsibilities
• Seek formal direction
• Require security
• Little ambition
• Exercise self-control
• Accept responsibility
• Seek responsibility
• Make innovative
decisions
6
Content Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factors
Hygiene factors affect
job dissatisfaction
Motivator factors affect
job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
• Promotional opportunities
• Opportunities for personal
growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
Quality of supervision
Pay
Company policies
Physical working
conditions
• Relations with others
• Job security
High
Job Dissatisfaction
0
Job Satisfaction
High
7
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• If managers eliminate factors creating job
dissatisfaction, they may bring about “peace”
but not necessarily motivation.
• If managers want to motivate, they should
emphasize factors associated with the work
itself (or outcomes directly derived from it).
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Content Theories: McClelland's Needs
• Need for achievement (nAch) - drive to excel
• Need for power (nPow) - need to make others
behave in ways they would not otherwise
• Need for affiliation (nAff) - desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships
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McClelland's Needs Theory
• High nAchievers: Prefer jobs with personal
responsibility, feedback, intermediate risk.
• High nAchievers: Not necessarily good
managers.
• nAffiliation and nPower: Are both closely
related to managerial success.
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Content Theories: Job Char’s Model
11
Applications of Job Char’s Model:
Job Redesign & Work Scheduling Programs
• Improve the job’s “VISAF”
• Use employee involvement & participation
• Look to job rotation
• Look to job sharing
• Consider flextime
• Consider telecommuting
12
Application of Content Theories
Managers must appreciate the difference between:
– Intangible (intrinsic) vs. tangible (extrinsic) needs.
Examples of Intangible (intrinsic) needs:
• trust, respect
• mastery
• sense of purpose
• autonomy
• recognition
• fairness
• involvement
• guidance
• gratifying work
• teamwork
• structure
• acceptance
(Do managers have greater control over tangible or intangible rewards?)
Theories of Motivation
• Process Theories: Attempt to tell us how
motivation takes place.
– Expectancy Theory
– Goal Setting Theory
– Behavior Modification (Learning) Theory
– Equity Theory
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Process Theories: Expectancy
• Motivation is a process governing choice
• Assumes Perf. = (Mot. x Ability) and that
Mot. = (V x I x E)
• Works well for diagnosing
• Works well for predicting discrete and
important job choices
15
The Expectancy Process
16
Process Theories: Goal Setting
Goal Setting Theory
– Assumes conscious goals and intentions will drive
(or motivate) behavior
– Important terms:
•S
•M
•A
•R
•T
Ownership of goal also critical for motivation!
– Remember Self-Efficacy
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The “SMART” Goal-Setting Process
Use SMART Rules
to Set Goals
Involve Employees to
Gain Ownership
and Commitment
Monitor and
Provide Support and
Regular Feedback
Motivation
and Performance
18
Beware of “Goals Gone Wild!”
The “dark side” of writing good SMART goals:
– Higher order goal displacement:
• Short term goals, plus a high pay off, can lead to some nasty outcomes as people
become myopically focused and quickly take the low road;
• Short term, high stakes goals will crowd out long term goals and work against the long
term interest of the organization (for example, strong quarterly earnings goals with
strong incentives/punishments, work against LR R&D investments, etc.).
19
Process Theories: Behavior Modification
(or Learning Theory)
• Assumes all human behavior is shaped (or “reinforced”)
by its environmental consequences
• Important terminology:
– Reinforcement (both +/-): increases probability
of a behavior
– Punishment (both +/-): decreases probability
of a behavior
• Tricky Application: When is a reward a punishment ?
(Hint: What’s the role of human cognition in all this?)
(See also: Cognitive Evaluation Theory)
20
Using Behavior Modification and
Consequences to Manage Behavior
• Focus on specific behaviors
• Respond quickly
• Be consistent
• Use positive reinforcement
• Punish sparingly
• Praise publicly; punish privately
• Provide alternative behaviors
• Don’t hope for A while rewarding B
(it’s called “Learning Theory” for a reason!)
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Process Theories: Equity Theory
• Assumes people are motivated (in a social
context) to attain fairness
• Inputs, Outcomes and “comparison other”
• Inequity  tension  behaviors (to eliminate it)
• Behaviors to eliminate the inequity are very
predictable
22
When employees perceive inequity, they will:
1) Change attitudes/perceptions about inputs and/or
outcomes (of self or comparison other)
2) Increase own outcomes and/or decrease inputs
3) Use different “comparison person”
4) Try to get “other” to change inputs and/or
outcomes
5) Quit their job or seek to transfer
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In summary...
• Content theories:
– Basic survival needs (i.e., food, water, etc.)
– Higher level intrinsic needs (i.e., list of intangibles)
• Process theories:
– Establishing clear “if-then” linkages
– Establishing vague “trust-based” linkages
What about money? Does it motivate?
• Of course, money matters hugely!
– But it typically does NOT “motivate” because:
• It only matters up to a certain “point”
• It’s rarely ever “contingent”
• Advice: Pay enough to take money “off the table,” then
create a culture that motivates through higher levels of
intrinsic needs (like mastery, autonomy, purpose, etc.)
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Putting it all together . . .
So, why do so many managers often fail
at properly motivating their employees?
1. They are usually guilty of “projection”
(Note to Self: People will always commit
themselves for “their” reasons, not mine!)
2. They assume “one-size-fits-all”
3. They don’t appreciate the difference between
tangible vs. intangible rewards
4. They don’t appreciate the difference between
features and benefits
25
To motivate your people, you should know....
• Their tangible needs
• Their intangible needs
• Their skills and abilities
• Their background and experience
• The tasks they like and dislike
• Their job and career goals
• Their personal goals and ambitions
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