AP Psychology
What is Consciousness?
One’s awareness of the outside world.
 And of one’s mental processes, thoughts, feelings,
and perceptions.
Levels of Consciousness:
 Conscious
 Nonconscious
 Cognitive Unconscious
 Preconscious
 Unconscious (or subconscious)
Sleep and Dreams
 Biological Rhythms
 periodic physiological fluctuations
 Circadian Rhythm
 the biological clock
 regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle,
such as of temperature, alertness, appetite, hormone
secretion, and sleep timing
 A person's desire and ability to fall asleep is influenced
by both the length of time since the person woke from
an adequate sleep, and by internal circadian rhythms.
Reading an EEG
 Alpha Waves
 Slow waves of a relaxed,
awake brain
 Delta Waves
 Large, slow waves of deep
sleep
 Sleep Spindles
 A burst of brain activity, or
jolt
 K Complex
 Largest event in an EEG
Stages of Sleep
 0 = Awake, beta waves present
 1 = “Drifting”, alpha waves present, theta waves
begin
 2 = Continuation of stage 1, theta waves present,
sleep spindles (brain jolts) and K complex present
 3 = beginning of deep sleep, delta waves present
 4 = Delta waves present more than 50% of the
time, deepest level of sleep, occurrence of sleep
disorders
 REM = Resembles awake state, high heart rate,
rapid breathing, high blood pressure, muscle tone
decreases to virtual paralysis
Stages of Sleep
 75% of sleep is spent in non-REM, aka “Quiet
Sleep”
 25% of sleep is spent in REM, aka “Active Sleep”
 Each stage is approximately 20 minutes –
stages 0-4 take approximately 90 minutes
 1st REM period is approximately 10 minutes
long – increases each cycle – by end of night,
REM is approximately 30 minutes long
 Most people go through 4-6 sleep cycles per
night
Figure 9.5:
EEG
Recordings
Typical of
Various
Sleep Stages
Figure 9.6: A Night’s Sleep
Figure 9.7: Sleep and Dreaming Over
the Life Span
Sleep Disorders
 Insomnia
 Narcolepsy
 Sleep Apnea
 Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS)
 Nightmares & Night
Terrors
 Sleepwalking
 REM Behavior
Disorder
Why Do People Sleep?
 Sleep-wake cycles as a
circadian rhythm
 The suprachiasmatic
nuclei (SCN) is
responsible for
controlling circadian
rhythms
 Functions of sleep
 Effects of short-term
sleep deprivation
 Restorative functions
 Special functions of
REM sleep
Figure 9.8: Sleep, Dreaming, and
the Brain
Pons
Dreams and Dreaming
 Story-like sensations and perceptions.
 Most bizarre and vivid dreams occur during REM sleep.
 May contain a certain amount of logic.
 May be influenced by daytime activities to some degree.
 Lucid dreaming – when you are aware that you are
dreaming
Why Do We Dream?
Wish Fulfillment - Freud
 Psychodynamic Approach
 Dreams represent our unconscious desires
 Repressed desires show up in the form of symbols


Manifest content – the literal content of a dream
(transcription)
Latent content – the true meaning behind the dream
(unconscious desires)
Why Do We Dream?
 Activation-Synthesis Theory
 Views dreaming from a biological approach
 Dreams result from random brain activity during REM
sleep – the brain’s interpretation of what is happening
physiologically during REM sleep
 Information-Processing Theory (Problem-Solving Theory)
 Stress throughout the day increases the # and intensity
of dreams – content relates to daily concerns
 Dreams review and address problems from the day
 The function of REM is to integrate the info processed
during the day into our memories
Hypnosis
 An altered state of consciousness.
 Brought on by special techniques.
 Produces responsiveness to suggestions for changes
in experience and behavior.
 Posthypnotic Amnesia
 supposed inability to recall what one experienced
during hypnosis
 induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
Characteristics of Hypnotically Susceptible
People
 Tendency to be
 Better ability to focus
suggestible
 Positive attitudes
toward hypnosis
 Willingness to be
hypnotized
attention and ignore
distraction
 Active imagination
 Tendency to fantasize
 Capacity for quickly
and easily processing
information
Main
Changes
in
People
During
Hypnosis
 Reduced Planfulness
 Redistributed Attention
 Enhanced Ability to
Fantasize
 Increased Role-Taking
 Reduced Reality-Testing
Explaining Hypnosis
 State Theory – hypnotized people experience an
altered state of consciousness
 Role Theory – hypnotized people act in accordance
with a specific role
 Hilgard’s Dissociation Theory – a blend of role and
state theories – hypnotized people split various
aspects of their behavior from their normal self –
share some control with hypnotist
Applications of Hypnosis
 Pain Management
 Hypnotic suggestions can reduce:
 Nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy.
 Surgical bleeding.
 Post-operative recovery times.
 Use as a memory aid more controversial
Meditation, Health, and Stress
 Meditation is intended to create an altered state
of consciousness.
 People who meditate report reductions in stressrelated problems.
Factors That Influence the Effects of
Psychoactive Drugs
 With which neurotransmitter systems does the
drug interact?
 How does the drug affect these neurotransmitters
or their receptors?
 What psychological functions are performed by
the brain systems that use these
neurotransmitters?
Figure 9.11: Agonists and Antagonists
Dependence and Addiction
Big
effect
Drug
effect
 Tolerance
 diminishing effect
Response to
first exposure
with regular use
 Withdrawal
 discomfort and
After repeated
exposure, more
drug is needed
to produce
same effect
Little
effect
Small
Large
Drug dose
distress that follow
discontinued use
The Varying Effects of Drugs
 Substance Abuse
 Psychological dependence
 Physical dependence or addiction
 Drug tolerance
 Expectations and Drug Effects
 Learned expectations
 Impact on consumption
Depressants
 Reduce or depress CNS activity
 Partly by increasing activity of the inhibitory
neurotransmitter GABA.
 Examples
 Alcohol
 Barbiturates
 Gamma Hydroxybutryrate (GHB)
Effects of Alcohol
 Affects Several Neurotransmitters
 Enhances the Effect of Endorphins
 Interacts with Dopamine Systems
 Affects Specific Brain Regions
 Depresses activity in the locus coeruleus.
 Impairs the hippocampus.
 Suppresses the cerebellum.
 Depresses hindbrain mechanisms.
Stimulants
 Increase Behavioral and Mental Activity
 Examples:
 Amphetamines
 Cocaine
 Caffeine
 Nicotine
 MDMA (“Ecstasy”)
Opiates
 Can induce sleep and relieve pain.
 Have complex effects on consciousness.
 Highly addictive class of drugs.
 Examples
 Opium
 Morphine
 Heroin
Hallucinogens
 Also called psychedelics.
 Create a loss of contact with reality.
 Alter other aspects of emotion, perception, and
thought.
 Examples
 LSD
 Ketamine
 Marijuana
References
 http://college.cengage.com/psychology/bernstein/psy
chology/7e/instructors/index.html
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosis