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By Lynn Green and Bill Bennett
 History of women’s struggles to work & be educated
 Existing Laws:
 Equal Pay Act/Civil Rights Act
 Title IX of the Education Amendments
 Nothing has changed
 Perkins I and IV
 Participation in non-traditional courses
 Completion of non-traditional courses
 Barriers:
 Sexism & stereotypes
 Inaccurate consolidated annual reports
 Changes that need to be made:




Programs and Practices That Work (PPTW)
18 ways to improve equity
More grants needed
CAR calculations need changing
Mary Lyon
 Since the 19th century
women have fought for
equality in the work
place.
 This battle continues for
equal pay however
women have made a
significant break-through
in many work fields.
 Sexism and stereotypes
continue to prevail.
 During WWII the
U.S. experienced
the largest influx of
women into the
workforce in its
history.
 Women now
make up 46% of
US workforce.
 By 1997, nearly 60% of American women were in the labor
force.
 Up from 33 percent in 1950. (Workforce 2020)
 Women in the U.S. workplace more than tripled from 1948
to 1995.
 17 million women were employed in 1948 compared to 60 million in 1995.
(Bureau of Labor)
 Among Fortune 500 companies
 5% of senior managers are women
 10% of board members are female
(Glass Ceiling Commission report, from SF Chronicle, 1/18/96)
 Single moms serving as head of
household are new norm.
 Women owned businesses make up:
 33% of all domestic firms
 40% of all retail and service firms (U.S. Census Bureau).
 Women-owned businesses:
 Employ 15.5 million people
 35% more workers in the US than Fortune
500 companies employ world-wide.
 Make up 7.7 million businesses
in the US.
 Generate nearly $1.4 trillion in annual
sales.
(Women-Owned Businesses: Breaking the Boundaries from The Devillier
Report)
 In 1971-72 school year nearly 3 million women enrolled in
secondary or post-secondary vocational programs.
 Some program offerings still denied base on sexual-bias.
 Some non-traditional enrollment has changed
 Women enrollment changes 1971-72 vs. 1981-82
 Marketing +12.1%
 Technical +12.5%
 Agriculture +16/3%
 Trade/Tech +6.8%
 Home Economics -6.5%
 Office Occupations -2.6%
 Women are becoming better educated.
 Some women are electing nontraditional paths such as:
 Engineering, science technicians, and computer specialists.
 Starting their own businesses.
 Women have invaded & proven themselves
successful in traditional white male bastions:
 Architects
 Economists
 Pharmacists
 Lawyers
 Journalists
 Executives and Administrators
 Equal Pay Act of 1963
 1st significant legislation relating to vocational equity
 Called for the end of discrimination based on sex in
payment of wages for equal work
 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
 Prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of
sex, race, color, religion, and national rights
 Scope was more extensive than the Equal Pay Act
 Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
 Renamed Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in
Education Act in 2002
 Enacted on June 23, 1972.
 Landmark legislation banning discrimination in
education on the basis of sex
 A 37-word law that states:
 "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex,
be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education
program or activity receiving Federal financial
assistance.“
 Women’s Educational Equity Act of 1974
 Provided funding of projects to advance education between
women and men
 Specifically provided for expansion and improvement of
programs for females in vocational education and career
education
 Educational Amendments of 1976
 Required development & implementation of programs to
eliminate sex discrimination, sex, bias, & sex-role
stereotyping
 Each state required to hire a full-time sex equity coordinator
to:
 Provide leadership in eliminating barriers
 Offer technical assistance to local educators
 Develop a public relations program
 Emphasis placed on employing gender equity in
vocational programs
 States were directed to:
 Spend 8.5% of federal funds to provide educational
education & training for:
 Single parents
 Homemakers
 Displaced homemakers
 Spend 3.5% of federal funds to
 Eliminate sex bias and stereotyping
 Support males in non-traditional roles
 1990 reauthorization continued much of the same rules
 Requires state and local recipients of federal funds to:
 Make progress in improving student participation in and
completion of CTE which leads to nontraditional training and
employment.
 Part of the accountability system (section 113).
 Mandates that states record and report percentages for:
 Section 113 b2A: Non-traditional Participation
 Section 113 b2A: Non-traditional Completion
 Existing laws have been created to ensure that sufficient numbers of
students are:
 Being recruited into programs that are non-traditional* for their gender
 Persisting in and completing these programs
 Two separate indicators are necessary to determine whether critical
interventions such as professional development, mentoring, parental
involvement, and peer support programs occur between recruitment and
completion.
* The term ‘non-traditional’ means
programs, occupations or fields of
work, including careers in computer science, technology, and other current
and emerging high skill occupations, for which individuals from one gender
comprise less than 25% of the workforce.
 Of the 7 traditional vocational education areas, 6 are
heavily sex typed (Marketing is the exception) (Gordon,
2010).
 Many women continue to perceive their role in life as
domestic (Gordon, 2010).
 Displaced homemakers
 Female single parents
 Teenage mothers
 Pregnant & parenting teens encounter discrimination in
schools (Gordon, 2010).
 Many are minority and fall into lower socio-economic category.
 Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972/76
 Law has been in effect for 34 years
 Data shows that the level of under-representation of
women in CTE fields that are nontraditional for their
gender has remained virtually unchanged since 1979.
 In high schools country wide males dominate:
 Automotive technology
 Construction
 Engineering
 While females dominate:
 Nursing
Male Completion Rate:
2007 Data
Female Completion Rate:
2007 Data
19.23%
33.08%
66.92%
80.77%
Males in NTO programs for males
Females in NTO programs for males
Females in NTO programs for females
Males in NTO programs for females
Male Participation Rate:
2007 Data
Female Participation Rate:
2007 Data
19.23%
33.08%
66.92%
80.77%
Males in NTO programs for males
Females in NTO programs for males
Females in NTO programs for females
Males in NTO programs for females
Percent
20
15
MALE
FEMALE
TOTAL
10
5
2004
2005
2006
2007
Percent
20
15
MALE
FEMALE
TOTAL
10
5
2004
2005
2006
2007
2006-2007
2005-2006
2004-2005
2003-2004
2002-2003
2001-2002
2000-2001
1999-2000
1998-1999
83%
81%
79%
77%
75%
73%
Male
71%
Female
69%
67%
65%
2006-2007
2005-2006
2004-2005
2003-2004
2002-2003
2001-2002
2000-2001
1999-2000
1998-1999
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
Male
Female
30%
20%
10%
0%
45%
40%
35%
All Voc Ed Students
State Negotiated Level
30%
Displaced Homemaker
Economically Disadvantaged
Limited English Proficiency
25%
Single Parent
Students with Disabilities
20%
2006-2007
2005-2006
2004-2005
2003-2004
2002-2003
2001-2002
2000-2001
1999-2000
1998-1999
15%
45%
40%
35%
30%
All Voc Ed Students
Displaced Homemaker
State Negotiated Level
25%
Economically Disadvantaged
Limited English Proficiency
20%
Single Parent
Students with Disabilities
15%
2006-2007
2005-2006
2004-2005
2003-2004
2002-2003
2001-2002
2000-2001
1999-2000
1998-1999
10%
 Under-representation of women in CTE fields that are
nontraditional for their gender has remained virtually
unchanged since 1979 (PPTW, 2005).
 High school girls also continue to be under-represented
in critical math and science fields as well (PPTW,
2005).
 In 2008, girls made up only 31% of students taking AP
physics exams and only 17% of students taking AP
computer science exams (PPTW, 2005).
 According to the National Women’s Law Center
 Girls are dropping out of schools at alarming rates
 Studies show schools can be successful in reducing
dropout rates when:
 They offer CTE programs
 Make the link between academic work, college success
& careers
 Schools that want to reduce their dropout rates must:
 Ensure girls have equal access to career and technical
education
 Provide training for high-skill, high-wage jobs
 Why Are Females Under-Represented?
 Reason are complex
 Research links problem to:
 Sex discrimination
 Sex stereotyping
 Examples of sex discrimination and stereotyping:
 Permitting sexual or gender-based harassment in
classrooms.
 Inadvertently allowing boys to monopolize equipment or
teacher attention.
 Steering girls & boys away from nontraditional
courses—can create real barriers that prevent students
from being able to make informed choices about or
pursue their education and careers.
 Other barriers that may contribute to the disparities
in enrollment include:
 Student and parent lack of awareness about
nontraditional CTE opportunities.
 Student internalization of sex-stereotyped roles.
 Peer pressure to avoid nontraditional CTE courses.
 Cultural pressure to avoid nontraditional CTE courses.
 Reluctance to be a “pioneer” in a new field.
 Bias is - behavior, attitude, or prejudice resulting from
the assumption that one sex is superior to another.
 Stereotyping is – attributing behaviors, abilities,
interests, values, and roles to an individual or group on
the basis of sex.
 Discrimination is – the
denial of opportunity,
privilege, role, or reward
on the basis of sex.
 Consolidated Annual Report
 OVAE requirement for states
 Report by states on non-traditional participation rates
by men and women
 Definitions are vague
 Percentages are being miscalculated
OVAE Core Indicators
Core Indicator 1. Student Attainment
Core Indicator 3. Placement and
Retention
1S1: Secondary Academic Attainment
1S2: Secondary Vocational and Technical
Skill Attainment
1P1: Postsecondary Academic Attainment
1P2: Postsecondary Vocational and
Technical Skill Attainment
3S1:
3S2:
3P1:
3P2:
Core Indicator 2. Credential Attainment
Core Indicator 4. Participation in and
Completion of Non-Traditional Programs
2S1: Secondary Completion
2S2: Proficiency Credential with Secondary
Diploma
2P1: Postsecondary Degree or Credential
4S1: Participation in Secondary NonTraditional Programs
4S2: Completion of Secondary NonTraditional Programs
4P1: Participation in Postsecondary NonTraditional Programs
4P2: Completion of Postsecondary NonTraditional Programs
Secondary Placement
Secondary Retention
Postsecondary Placement
Postsecondary Retention
 PPTW started in 2005 by:
 The Association for Career and Technical Education
(ACTE)
 The National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity (NAPE)
 The National Association of State Directors of Career
and Technical Education Consortium (NASDCTEc)
 The National Women’s Law Center (NWLC)
 http://www.girltech.com/community.aspx
 Implement research-based strategies for improving enrollment and





retention of students in nontraditional CTE programs
Effectively identify and build strong education-community
partnerships, interagency coalitions and business partnerships.
Introduce students to role models, including professionals who have
nontraditional careers and peers who participated in nontraditional CTE
programs. The role models answer questions, share stories, and
frequently interact with and mentor students.
Provide hands-on opportunities for students to learn about and apply
skills.
Document the program in a manner that is replicable by others
attempting to implement similar programs
Centrally coordinate all the schools in a community college or
secondary system.
 Measure the outcomes and results of the project by collecting data
about the students who participate in the program or benefit from the
practice, including whether they have been retained in the field or
continued their education in other areas.
 Collect testimonials and seek both positive and negative input from
program participants to measure their enthusiasm for the program and
make improvements where necessary.
 Expand model programs to other under-served populations that have
historically not participated in careers that are nontraditional for their race,
disability or socioeconomic status.
 Build upon or cultivates an institutional commitment to gender equity and
compliance with civil rights laws and uses the program as an opportunity to
train all staff about gender equity.
 Respond to the needs of the local labor market and features high-demand
occupations.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Examine your teaching behavior to see which students get
the most and best responses from you.
Use praise as a deliberate strategy coupled with feedback
about the quality of work and what, if anything, needs to be
done.
Give criticism in the form of a question.
Don’t always call on the first hand that goes up.
“Coach” females as well as males.
When you ask the class a question, look at all students.
Listen attentively to all students when they speak.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Intervene when male students show disrespect for female
students (or the reverse).
Do not allow students to interrupt each other (Male
students often interrupt female students).
Use small groups to foster cooperative, rather than
competitive learning.
Avoid stories, jokes and comments that denigrate women
and girls.
In giving credit to students’ contributions, be sure to give
it to females as much as males and to the right person.
13. Judge females’ (and males’) contributions to the class by the
content of their ideas rather than by the style of their speech.
14. Use parallel terminology in describing both genders, such as
“men and women,” or “boys and girls,” not “girls and men.” Use
“he or she” rather than the generic “he” or words such as
“mankind.”
15. Do not group students by gender
16. Do not make seemingly helpful remarks that disparage females’
abilities, such as, “I know that a lot of females have trouble with
math so I’ll be happy to help anyone who needs extra
assistance.”
17. Ask males and females the same kinds of questions
18. Call male and female students by name.
 More grants and scholarships
need to be created to encourage
students to enter into nontraditional programs.
 CAR reporting methods need
to be standardized to be more
accurate to allow proper
distribution of funds.
 Women now make up a large portion of the U.S. workforce
 Existing Laws:
 Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
 Nothing has changed
 Perkins IV
 Participation in non-traditional courses is not occurring
 Completion of non-traditional courses is not occurring
 Barriers:
 Sexism & stereotypes
 Inaccurate consolidated annual reports
 Changes that need to be made:




Programs and Practices That Work (PPTW)
18 Ways to Improve Equity
More grants needed
CAR calculations need changing
109 Congress. 2006. Public law 109-270. United States Congress. Washington,
D.C.
Girls Tech, 2010 http://www.girltech.com/index.aspx
Gordon, Howard R.D. 1999. History and growth of vocational education in
America. Allyn and Bacon. Boston.
Lufkin, Mimi, 2006. 18 ways for faculty to promote equity in the classroom.
http://www.napequity.org/. Accessed February 27, 2010.
Lufkin, Mimi, 2006. Disaggregating gender for the nontraditional accountability
measure. http://www.napequity.org/. Accessed February 27, 2010.
National Women’s Law Center. 2007. How to promote gender equity in career and
technical education: A primer for schools. http://www.nwlc.org/. Accessed
February 27, 2010.
Wikipedia, 2010 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX
AAUW Breaking the Barriers September 2009
http://www.aauw.org/advocacy/issue_advocacy/actionpages/upload/Career
TechED1112.pdf
Career and Tech Education 2009
http://uvucte.info/pdf/Division_report_08-09.pdf
CTE: Non-Traditional Career’s 2009
http://schools.utah.gov/cte/nontrad_links.html
US Census Bureau
http://www.census.gov/
Women work 2010 http://www.womenwork.org/policy/perkins.htm