Forest products dependence of
rural communities
in Ukraine
Tetiana Zhyla, Ihor Soloviy, Andriy Zhyla,
Anastasia Rudych
October 2014
This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The content, findings, interpretations, and con clusions of this publication
are the sole responsibility of the FLEG II (ENPI East) Progra mme Tea m ( www.enpi -fleg.org) and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the
European Union. The views e xpressed do not necessarily reflect those of the I mple menting Organizations.
CONTENTS
List of tables ..........................................................................................................................................................4
List of figures ........................................................................................................................................................4
Executive summary...............................................................................................................................................5
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Forests and forest use in your country .................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Rationale .................................................................................................................................................. 11
2. Methodology ................................................................................................................................................. 12
2.1 study area ................................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Method of sampling ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.3 Number of households ............................................................................................................................ 13
2.4 Timeline ................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Field implementation and problems ....................................................................................................... 14
2.6 Local unit conversion ............................................................................................................................... 14
3. Study area characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 14
3.1 Brief history of villages ............................................................................................................................ 14
3.2 Demographics .......................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Infrastructure availability ........................................................................................................................ 17
3.4 Economic data ......................................................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Major economic activities ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.6 Seasonal calendar .................................................................................................................................... 18
3.7 Major markets and market access........................................................................................................... 19
3.8 Major land cover and land uses............................................................................................................... 19
3.9 Description of conservation areas ........................................................................................................... 21
3.10 Tenure and governance ......................................................................................................................... 21
3.11 Government and other development/conservation projects ............................................................... 22
3.12 Calamities .............................................................................................................................................. 23
3.13 Other relevant issues ............................................................................................................................. 23
4. Results and discussion ................................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Income share by source ........................................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Frequency and value of forest products.................................................................................................. 28
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4.3 Fuelwood ................................................................................................................................................. 33
4.4 Cash and subsistence of forest products ................................................................................................. 34
4.5 RFI over income quintiles ........................................................................................................................ 37
4.6 RFI over asset groups ............................................................................................................................... 39
4.7 Most Important Products ........................................................................................................................ 42
5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 43
6. References ..................................................................................................................................................... 44
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List of tables
Table 1. Number of households ........................................................................................................................ 13
Table 2. Local unit conversion ........................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3 Age structure ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Table 4 Gender specificity ................................................................................................................................ 17
Table 5 Seasonal calendar ................................................................................................................................ 18
Table 6 Forest dependence ............................................................................................................................... 42
List of figures
Figure 1. Ministries and agencies involved in forest management structure in Ukraine ................................. 11
Figure 2. Research regions on the map of Ukraine. .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3. Income shares by source – Roztochchia. ............................................................................................ 26
Figure 4. Income shares by source – Transcarpathia. ....................................................................................... 27
Figure 5. Income shares by source – Polissia. ................................................................................................... 27
Figure 6. Income shares by source – all regions. ............................................................................................... 27
Figure 7. Most common forest product by value in Roztochchia, % ................................................................. 28
Figure 8. Most common forest product by frequency in Roztochchia, % ......................................................... 28
Figure 9. Most common forest product by valueTranscarpathia, % ................................................................. 30
Figure 10. Most common forest product by frequency in Transcarpathia, %................................................... 30
Figure 11. Support for beans (Phaseolus) ......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 12. Christmas tree made from branches ................................................................................................ 31
Figure 13. Most common forest product by value in Polissia, % ...................................................................... 32
Figure 14. Most common forest product by frequency in Polissia, % ............................................................... 32
Figure 15. The share of the cost of fuelwood in total income, % ...................................................................... 33
Figure 16. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Roztochchia, (total value), USD (PPP). ........................ 34
Figure 17. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Roztochchia, (total value), USD (PPP). .............................. 34
Figure 18. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP) ..................... 35
Figure 19. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP) ........................... 35
Figure 20. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Polissia, (total value), USD (PPP) ................................. 36
Figure 21. Cash and subsistence of forest value in Polissia, (total value), USD (PPP) ....................................... 36
Figure 22. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 1 “Roztochchia”...................................... 37
Figure 23. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Transcarpathia). ................................. 38
Figure 24. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Polissia). ............................................. 39
Figure 25. Roztochchia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI................................................ 40
Figure 26. Transcarpathia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI ........................................... 40
Figure 27. Polissia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI ....................................................... 41
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Executive summary
Introduction
The forested area of Ukraine is unevenly distributed between four distinct temperate forest
regions: the Carpathian mountain forests, the northern forests (Polissia), the forest steppe and the
steppe zone. The dry mountain forests of the Crimea proceed towards Mediterranean climatic
conditions and are often classified as a separate forest region.
The area of Ukrainian forest found (lands designated to forestry) is 10.87 million ha. The
forest cover is 15.7%. It varies from 3.7% in Zaporozhzhia and Mykolaiv regions to 51.4% in
Transcarpathia. Total wood growing stock is 1.8 billion m3 and the average annual wood increment
– 4 m3/ha.
Ukraine has long historical traditions, experiences and capacity in forest management.
Because of the heterogeneity of climatic conditions, differences in historic development and
characteristics of economic activities in different regions of Ukraine there are different traditions in
regard to the forest management.
Nowdays Ukrainian forests are managed by state enterprises which are mainly in public
ownwership - belong to different ministries and agencies (Figure 1.). The majority of forests (66% of
the country’s forests) managed by the enterprices of the State Forest Resources Agency
Collection of all non-timber forest resources is free of charge. People do not need
permission to collect mushrooms and berries for their own needs. According to the law, if people
need firewood or wood - they should pay for it to the forest enterprices which should receive a
permit - a special ticket for fulfillment of every tree harvesting operation.
Methodology
The study has been conducted in three region of the Western Ukraine. Region 1
“Roztochchia” – plain, the western part of the country (Lviv region, Yavorivsky district, villages
Seredkevychi and Smolyn); Region 2 “Transcarpathia” – the Carpathian mountains, the southwestern part of Ukraine (Transcarpathian region, Velykobereznianskyi district, villages Zahorb and
Strychava); Region 3 “Polissia” – plain, the north-western part of Ukraine (Rivne region,
Bereznivskyi district, villages Kolodyazne and Bystrychi). In every region 2 villages were
investigated. In “Roztochchia” 60 interviews were conducted in 60 households randomly. In
“Transcarpathia” 50 interviews were conducted and in last region “Polissia” 40 interviews were
conducted accordingly. The survey in focus-groups were held in each village also.
Area of the study
Region 1: Seredkevychi and Smolyn. Villages are located in the territory of the Yavorivskii
district, the Lviv region, in western part of Ukraine. There are forest and agricultural lands near
both villages. Village of Seredkevychi is the settlement number 1 in our study. In 50-s of the 19
century the village took its present name Seredkevychi. It was called Ulytsko-Seredkevychi before.
References about Ulitsky-Seredkyvychi are from 18301. The area of Seredkevychi is 3,8 км2. Its
geographical coordinates: 500 09’ 17”N 230 32’ 51”E. There are 753 inhabitants and 210 housholds
in the village. The village of Smolyn is community number 2 in our study. The village was founded in
the 13 century. The area of Smolyn is 2,43km2. Its geographical coordinates: 500 09’ 18” N 230 27’
1
http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7503/A005?rdat1=01.10.2012&rf7571=21626
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45” E. Both villages, Seredkevychi and Smolyn are covered mostly by plains. The hills are about
320-370m height, the average altitude is 316m. These villages are situated on the main European
watershed. Seredkevychi and Smolyn are located in the typical rural area, that’s why the agriculture
is the main occupation (activity) for local population. If we compare Smolyn with Seredkevychi, in
the village of Smolyn the peasants possess the bigger farm plots (about 25-30% more).
Villages Seredkevychi and Smolyn are situated in Lviv Region. Forest cover in this region is
28.5%. Forest land is owned by: RLP “Ravske Roztochchia” that occupies the area of 19103
hectares – protected area category V according to IUCN. And forest enterprise “SE Rava-Ruska
forestry” – forestry, which manage forests including harvesting operations.
Region 2: Zahorb and Strychava. These villages are located in the territory of the
Velykobereznianskyi district, the Transcarpatian region, in the south-western part of Ukraine. The
surrounding area is mostly coverd by forest (51.4% of forests in the Transcarpathian region). The
village of Zahorb is the rural settlement number 3 in our study. The village founded in the 16
century. Its geographical coordinates: 49° 0′ 48″ N, 22° 39′ 46″ E. The type of its territory landscape
is mountainous. That’s why Zahorb has the status “the mountainous village”. According to the law of
Ukraine some additional payments (called “mountainous payments” -- 25%) from state budget are
added to the average pensions, scholarships, salaries of its inhabitants.
The average altitude is 526m. Village area is 36,547 km2. Near the village there are
mountain forests where the villagers go to pick berries. Village of Strychava is the rural settlement
number 4 in our study. The village was founded in the 17 century. Its geographical coordinates:
48° 57′ 43″ N, 22° 29′ 29″ E. The average altitude is 378m. Village area is 9,9 км2.The type of
territory is mountainous also, but the “mountainous” status is not officially confirmed.
Region 3: Kolodiazne and Bystrychi. Villages are located on the territory of Bereznivskyi
district, Rivne region, in the north-western part of Ukraine. In Polissia region forests are the
dominant land use in landscape ( forest cover is 36.4), there is also the agricultural land use there.
The village of Kolodiazne is the rural settlement number 5 in the study. The village was founded in
early 15 century. Its geographical coordinates are: 500 55’ 00” N 260 53’ 01”E. Its area is flat. The
average altitude is 178m. Village area is 1,35 km2 .The village of Bystrychi is the rural settlement
number 6 in the study. The village was founded in the 17 century. Its geographical coordinates are:
500 52’ 56” N 260 54’ 21”E. The territory is flat and swampy. The average altitude is 178m. Village
area is 3,93 km2. Bystrychi and Kolodiazne are situated in the agricultural region that’s why farming
is the main occupation (activity) for the local population.
There is electricity in all villages. The gas supply is awailable only in the region “Polissia”.
Running water supply systems is established only in the village of Smolyn (region 1) in two other
regions there is no central water supply systems. The official unemployment level after the
methodology of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in Lviv region is 7,5%, in
Transcarpathian region – 8,2% and in Rivne region – 10,3%2 The process of migration abroad is
observed in each of еру studied villages. The typical seasonal migration aimed to work abroad is
mostly directed to Poland, to Russia and also to other regions of Ukraine. The predominant work
type abroad is: seasonal agricultural (men and women), construction (men), service sector
(women).
According to the data of the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine3 the poverty datum line in
Ukraine in 2013 made 24,7%. In Lviv region – 28,9%, in Transcarpathian region – 20,6% and in
Rivne region – 49,1%.
The core economic activity in all regions is the work at own private household. Now most of
people in rural area are working on their own plots of land. These plots are used mostly for making
hay for cows and horses, growing potatoes and many other vegetables, production of wheat and
oat. Agriculture is more developed in plain regions (“Roztochchia and Polissia”), in mountainous
2
3
http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua
http://www.mlsp.gov.ua/labour/control/uk/publish/category?cat_id=160211
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regions like “Transcarpathia” agriculture is underdeveloped, because of terrain conditions and low
fertility.
All three regions are the regions with the high forest cover, that’s why people go to the
forest to pick mushrooms, berries and other resources. They collect it both for further sale and for
their own needs also. In regions No.2 and No.3 there are the collecting points for picked bilberries.
For some people non-wood forest resources are very significant source of income.
Land use in Ukraine is subject to the law and regulations depends on the category of land.
The peculiarities of forest land use are defined in the Forest Code of Ukraine (2006), of lands of
agricultural designation usage in the Land Code (2006).
In the forest people have no right to harvesrt timber. It is allowed to get in for free the
boughs the diameter of which doesn’t exceed 3 cm. It is allowed to pick for free such non-wood
products as mushrooms and berries without any preliminary permits except for industrial procuring
provisions that also require the permits.
Access restriction to protected areas depends on their status. Within the protected area in
region 1 (category 5 according to International Union for Conservation of Nature), there is no
restrictions on picking mushrooms and berries. Within region 2 the protected area of “Uzhanskiy
national nature park” has higher protection degree, though in utility zones picking of berries and
mushrooms is allowed as in non-protected forest. Access is restricted only to protected area, but
local population doesn’t go there anyway because it is in the hard-to-reach areas where mushrooms
and berries do not grow.
The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine implement conservation projects
through state (national) and regional programs. Their priorities are based on Law of Ukraine “On
main foundations (strategy) of the state environmental policy of Ukraine for the period until 2020”.
Many conservation projects are implemented by international and national, and also regional or
even local NGOs. For example by the WWF in March 2011 regional project was launched, which
aims to prepare the Danube Delta for possible impacts of climate change. Many of the development
projects which are implemented by international organizations in Ukraine (UNDP, CIDA, USAID,
SIDA and other agencies, foundations) strength the local governance and capacities of the rural
population. Not many of them are oriented directly to forest sector. One of the recent projects is a
project “Consolidation of forest policy in Ukraine”4 supported by FAO leaded by the Forest
Resource Agency of Ukraine.
Results
The income structure of local inhabitants in three study regions (Roztochchia,
Transcarpathia and Polissia) is similar. The structure of income is following: 36% of income comes
from “other income”, which consists mainly of pensions, scholarships for students, maternity
allowance and support to families with more than two children and remittances from relatives.
Animal income (33%) is the next important source of income (meat, cottage cheese, milk, eggs
etc.). The third most important source of income is wage income (25%). This is because many
people who live in these regions and cannot find employment in their locations are working abroad.
Then is agricultural income (12%), coming mostly from potatoes, apples, wheat, beans, etc. Forest
income (5%) is the next important source, which includes blueberries (43%), mushrooms (28%),
wild strawberries (10%), tree branches (4%), blackberries (4%), firewood (2%) and others. Income
from business is 3% - mostly coming from trade and carpentry. Net livestock income is very
negative. This is because households that own livestock derive very little cash income from it.
Fuelwood is an essential product for local population survival. In most cases we did not
include firewood in forest income because people cannot take wood from the forest as mushrooms
and berries, they have to pay for it. This is a cost for them and not a source of income. In the
4
http://dklg.kmu.gov.ua/forest/control/uk/publish/article?art_id=118709&cat_id=118714
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communities where there is no gas heating opportunity, people use fuelwood for heating and
cooking, because they do not have an alternative - coal and liquefied natural gas are very expensive
for them. They sometimes use liquefied natural gas in summer for coking, but this accounts for a
very small percent.
Berries and mushrooms give the main part of the communities’ revenue from forest.
Villagers collect them both for sale and for family consumption. The most common forest product by
value in all regions is blueberrie (43% in Roztochchia, 43% in Transcarpathia and 42% in Polissia).
Berries are used for making jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking and
consuming raw in summer and also as gifts for friends and relatives in cities. Mushrooms (25% in
Roztochchia, 25% in Transcarpathia and 37% in Polissia ) occupy the second place. They are
collected for sale, own consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and dry and can for the winter)
and also as gifts.
People sell more than consume. Blueberries are the most popular product for sale and own
consumption, because it is a traditional forest product for which there is always a big demand.
Blueberries are delicious berries that are rich in vitamins and, thus, are bought and it doesn’t matter
how high their price is.
People are ready to sell any forest products that are in demand. Mushrooms are the
second popular product. They are traditionally used in cooking, especially during lent. Mushroom
dishes are very popular; and during winter holidays large quantities of marinated mushrooms or
dishes made of dried mushrooms are consumed. The fresh mushrooms are sold well during the
summer and autumn season as well as dried mushrooms during winter. Other berries are also used
for own consumption and for sale: wild strawberries, blackberries and raspberries. All these forest
berries are tasty and rich in vitamins and that is why they are very popular.
All income groups (quintiles) use forest products for own consumption (subsistence)
approximately in equal measure in Roztochchia. People traditionally consume large amounts of
mushrooms and berries regardless of their level of income. Forest products are sold by each
quintile, because in each of them are several households that sell large quantities. Practically all
those, who have the time and desire to work, collect berries and mushrooms for sale.
In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), all quintiles use forest products for own consumption and for
cash. However, Quintiles 3, 4 and 5, the richer, consume more. For them forest income is not as
important as for the poor and that is why they do not spare these products. The poor quintile (1) and
the average one (3) sell less. The poor are more dependent on forest income – Quintile 2 collects a
lot of berries and mushrooms for sale.
In Polisia, similarly to the first two regions, all quintiles use approximately the same
amounts of forest products for own consumption. The fourth quintile sells more forest products – it is
made up of hardworking villagers for whom forest income is the most important.
The richer population has the possibility to use forest products for their own needs and not
to sell because they receive money from different other sources.
The “rich” quintile is the less dependent on forest products (It follows from the graphs). In
this group, the share of forest income in total income is the smallest. The rich, as compared with the
poor, derive more income from other sources (income from stockbreeding, other income, wage
income). Consumption of forest products is approximately the same in all quintiles in each region.
This is because people traditionally consume a lot of mushrooms and berries. Regardless of their
level of income, mushrooms and berries remain popular food items in forest dependent
communities. People gather berries and mushrooms more than they need for their own consumption
in all regions. Blueberries, wild strawberries and mushrooms are the expensive as natural products,
the delicacy but not the main food products. That’s why they are sold, instead of them the pasta, the
cereals, and other foods, the household chemicals, the clothes are bought. For many families this is
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a good opportunity to earn money.
Conclusions
The key factor that influences community forest dependence is the availability of resources.
If there are berries and mushrooms, the villagers will collect them, regardless of their level of wealth.
If they were richer, they would purchase mushrooms and berries in markets or grocery stores (it
does take place in rare cases ), however, such strong economic growth is improbable.
The tendency to migration of population is observed at the mountain villages (in
Transcarpathia) (e.g., the village of Zahorb with 186 households, of which 25 have been
abandoned, and this process is continuing). There is a possibility to develop hang-gliding in this
village, which would improve the welfare situation of the community. Moreover, this sport does not
have a serious impact on the environment.
The forest resources which are accessible are used primarily for filling gaps in family
budgets, which seem to never end – as soon as one is filled, another one appears. Forest related
income is very important specifically for large families. During the collection season, a family earns
on berries and mushrooms enough to buy what is needed for school (clothes, shoes, and books,
stationary).
Villagers collect mushrooms and berries for the following reasons: in Ukraine there is free
access to non-timber forest products – almost all forests are owned by the state and mushrooms
and berries can be collected (on protected areas collecting is allowed in certain places). A “forest
ticket” must be obtained in order to collect NTFP for sale (commercial use). Forest products are in
demand and they may be sold at the market or acquired by procurement centres in villages. In
Ukraine, a lot of mushrooms and berries are traditionally consumed and they are an important
source of seasonal income.
Forest products (firewood, berries, mushrooms), agricultural products and stockbreeding
related products are the most vital products for local populations.
Firewood used for heating and cooking, it is a vital resource; berries – for own consumption
and sale; mushrooms – for own consumption and sale. Both mushrooms and berries are a very
important seasonal source of income. Agricultural and livestock products – for own consumption
and sale. For some households (especially in Region 1) they are the main source of cash (if nobody
in the household receives pensions or is employed, their main income comes from agriculture).
In the two regions where there is no gas supply, the use of firewood will remain stable. In
the third region the amount of firewood will increase, because the price of gas is constantly growing.
Dependence on mushrooms and berries is also stable; even if the villagers become richer,
they will not refuse this share of income in their total income. Mushrooms and berries are a
traditional food staple and also a commodity that is always in demand at the market. Forest income
in the annual income is smaller than agricultural income, but by the time spent, the former is a quick
income. People receive more income from other sources, but they invest much more time and effort
into, for example, agriculture. The amount of blueberries may change in Transcarpathia (Region 2)
because of climate change, which will, in turn, lead to a loss of this part of income. There is a high
probability that in this case the villagers will collect blueberries in other regions.
The amount of blueberries may also decrease in Polissia (Region 3), due to damaging to
forest ecosystem intensive collecting methods. Cranberry crops may also decrease, because it
grows on marshes (if the climate becomes drier), however in the studied villages the share of
gathered cranberries was not large.
The climate change impacts and harmful intensive harvesting practice should be
considered as challenges to sustainable non-wood forest resource management as precondition for
forest ecosystems conservation, local communities well-being and resilience,
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1. Introduction
1.1 Forests and forest use in your country
The forested area of Ukraine is unevenly distributed between four distinct temperate forest
regions: the Carpathian mountain forests, the northern forests (Polissia), the forest steppe and the
steppe. The dry mountain forests of the Crimea proceed towards Mediterranean climatic conditions
and are often classified as a separate forest region.
The area of Ukrainian forest found is 10.87 million ha, the forest coverage is 15.7%. Growing
stock of wood is 1.8 billion m3 and the annual wood increment – 4 m3/ha.
Forest cover varies from 3.7% in Zaporozhzhia and Mykolaiv regions to 51.4% in
Transcarpathia. Because of the heterogeneity of climatic conditions and characteristics of economic
activities of the population in Ukraine there are different traditions in regard to the forest
management. That is why the most wooded as well as the most dependent on the forest
communities are the Western and Northern parts of Ukraine. We have studied the regions which are
located in the Western Ukraine. Forest cover in these regions is following:
• Transcarpathian region-51.4% (the region number 1in our study);
• Rivne region-36.4% (the region number 3);
• Lviv region-28.5% (the region number 2).
The vast majority of forests in Ukraine have suffered from a heavy human impact except
some remote areas in the Carpathians or Polissia. Such territories are located in the region 1
(Primeval Beech Forests). Forests in the regions 2 and 3 were restored by the natural and artificial
means. General trend in woodland and forests in Ukraine is the permanent increasing of their total
area, but at the same time the share of ripe and mature forests is reducing.
Ukraine has long historical traditions, experiences and capacity in forest management.
Nowdays Ukrainian forests are managed by state enterprises mainly which belong to different
ministries and agencies (Figure 1.). The majority of forests, (66% of the country’s forests) managed
by the departments of the State Forest Resource Resources Agency
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Figure 1. Ministries and agencies involved in forest management structure in Ukraine



The main objectives of the State Forest Resources Agency are:
to implement the state policy in forest and hunting management, protection and
conservation, sustainable forest management, regeneration of forest resources and game
animals, to improve the efficiency of forest and game management;
to administer, regulate and control forest and hunting management;
to develop and implement the national, international and regional programs in order to
protect forests, improve their productivity, sustainable forest management and reforestation,
management and regeneration of game animals, development of hunting and forest
management planning.
In Ukraine, while legislation defines state, municipal and private forest ownership, in
practice the state ownership predominates. Although municipal ownership could be a basis for
‘community forestry,’ and restoration of traditional uses of forest-related resources, the public has a
little role in forest-related decision-making (Soloviy and Cubbage 2007). Unlike countries in Central
Europe, property restitution was not considered in Ukraine (or in other countries of the former Soviet
Union) during the process of reforming forestry in the years following the breakup of the USSR. This
was due to various historical circumstances in the different regions of Ukraine and the public’s fear
that forest management would not be sustainable in privatized forests. This, combined with a lack of
private forestry skills in the private sector, has limited private forest ownership and management to
very limited areas in the country. There is a need in Ukraine to conduct forest research, train
foresters, and raise public awareness about the values of traditional natural resource uses and
forest protection (Adamovskiy and Soloviy 2013).
Significant impact on the forests of Ukraine is that the decision making process in the field
of forestry enterprises activity is not fully transparent. During the last years corruption schemes were
presented in the activity of forest sector institutions as part of corrupted government as well as in
other sector. In particular, there is such fact that Ukraine is one of the large exporters of roundwood
in Europe, but wood processing and furniture industry is not sufficiently developed which leads to
the loss of added value of forest sector.
Collection of all non-timber forest resources is free of charge. People do not need
permission to collect mushrooms and berries for their own needs. According to the law, if people
need firewood or wood - they should pay for it to the forest enterprices which should receive a
permit - a special ticket for fulfillment of harvesting operations.
1.2 Rationale
There is growing awareness of the importance of NWFPs and especially some services
which are not reflected in the statistics. On the demand side, there is will-ingness to pay for NWFP
which is not satisfied by adequate supply (Cesaro et al 1995).
Importance of socio-economic research in these areas is considerable because the local
people traditionally have been using forest resources for centuries. The forest also contributes to
many community members’ sense of identity. Forest covered territories are the main source of
forest products for the urban population too. In particular mushrooms and berries are traditionally
very popular in the diet here. We have selected for the survey the regions where the agriculture
wasn’t well developed –because of the bad soil fertility in the region number 1 (Seredkevychi and
Smolyn) and because of the bad climatic conditions, the topography and certainly bad soil fertility in
the region number 2 (Zahorb and Strychava). In the region number 3 (Kolodyazne and Bystrychi)
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there are all favorable conditions for the intensive agriculture, however it is little developed too. The
lack of jobs and the relative complexity connected with travelling from marginal forested areas to the
major regional centers (Lviv, Rivne, Uzhgorod) are common to all these regions. These causes
limited possibility of finding well-paid according to the Ukrainian standards jobs.
The considerable part of the rural population see the way out of this situation in looking for
a job abroad or the use of wood and not wood forest resources for additional or even basic income.
We have just tried to identify forest functionality in this socio-economic context in the framework of
this survey.
2. Methodology
2.1 study area
The study has been conducted in three region of the Western Ukraine. Region 1
“Roztochchia” – plain, the western part of the country (Lviv region, Yavorivsky district, villages
Figure 2. Research regions on the map of Ukraine.
Seredkevychi and Smolyn); Region 2 “Transcarpathia” – the Carpathian mountains, the
south-western part of Ukraine (Transcarpathian region, Velykobereznianskyi district, villages Zahorb
and Strychava); Region 3 “Polissia” – plain, the north-western part of Ukraine (Rivne region,
Bereznivskyi district, villages Kolodyazne and Bystrychi).
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The location of the study regions is presented on the Figure 2.
2.2 Method of sampling
Western Ukraine is the most forested part of the country. The study was carried out in three
regions on the West Ukraine. “Transcarpathia” is the south-western part, “Roztochchia” – western
part, and “Polissia” – north-western part. These i regions selection corresponds to the following
criteria of natural zones representation (Ukrainian Carpathians, forest and steppe regions, Polissia)
and representation of the regions with different forest cover: Lviv region (“Roztochchia”) – the forest
cover makes 28,5%, Rivne region (“Polissia”) – 36,4%, Transcarpathian region (“Transcarpathia”) –
51,4%.
The western part of Ukraine is the most forested part of the country. The study was
conducted into the following regions of the Western Ukraine: "Transcarpathia" – south-western part,
"Roztochchia" – the western part, and "Polissia" – the north-western part.
The study regions represented by the following criteria: presentation of all natural zones
in the western part of Ukraine (Ukrainian Carpathians, Forest-steppe, Polissia) and representation
of regions with different forest cover, Lviv region ("Roztochchia") –28.5%, Rivne region ("Polissia ")
– 36.4%, Transcarpathian region (" Transcarpathia ") – 51.4%.
The study regions are the three major regions, which provide the Western Ukraine forest non-wood
products markets (especially, mushrooms and berries). The non-wood forest products of these
regions can be easily found on the farmers markets in all major cities – the regional centers of
Western Ukraine. In 2014 there was the berries procurement by intermediaries which had been
collected by the local population in order to export to Slovakia (region 1). In every region 2 villages
were investigated. In region № 1 (“Roztochchia”) 60 interviews were conducted in 60households
randomly. In region № 2 (Transcarpathia) 50 interviews were conducted and in last region № 3
(Polissia) 40 interviews were conducted accordingly. The survey in focus-groups were held in each
village also.
2.3 Number of households
The number of households in each village is presented in table 1.
Regions
Roztochchia
Transcarpathia
Polissia
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Table 1. Number of households
Name of the
Code of villages
villages
Seredkevychi
Smolyn
Zahorb
Strychava
Kolodyazne
Bystrychi
71
72
73
74
75
76
Number of
households
30
30
30
20
10
30
2.4 Timeline
1. Seredkevychi: 26.05.2014 - 05.08.2014
2. Smolyn: 16.06.2014 - 18.08.2014
3. Zahorb: 07.07.2014 - 12.08.2014
4. Strychava: 10.06.2014 - 14.06.2014
5. Kolodyazne: 14.08.2014 - 28.08.2014
6. Bystrychi: 04.07.2014 - 22.08.2014
2.5 Field implementation and problems
Field implementation was going according the plan. There any great problem wasn’t. Only
some troubles were connected with the fact that people couldn’t recollect the exact details. People
do not have the habit of pricise financial acccounting – only few of them know definitely if they have
some profit from their households activities. It was needed to sit down with them and count. An
average farmer typicall does not count his expenses in agriculture generally and for specific farming
practices. Therefore quite ofthen he does not make findings if it’s profitable to do it. The fact that
growing vegetables and producing livestock products are disadvantageously. The peasants explain
it in such manner: "However, I know that the high quality products grown with my own hands." This
is due to the tradition, so called bio-agriculture and subsistence farming. These products are
prodused typically on very small farms without using large amount of fertilizers, pecticides,
herbicedes, insecticides, fungisedes or growth hormones for cattle.
2.6 Local unit conversion
Local unit conversion is shown in table below.
Table 2. Local unit conversion
Local unit
Conversion
A bucket of berries
6 or 7kg
A bucket of mushrooms
4 or 5kg
A glass of peas
200g
A cart load of manure
500kg
A great trailer of manure
3500kg
A small trailer of manure
600kg
A cart load of hay
800kg
A cart load of straw
400kg
A meter of hay
100kg
3. Study area characteristics
3.1 Brief history of villages
SEREDKEVYCHI
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The village of Seredkevychi is the settlement number 1 in our study. The first
reminiscence of the village are the historical note about the local church that dates back to 19585. In
50-s of the 19 century the village took its present name Seredkevychi. It was called UlytskoSeredkevychi before. References about Ulitsky-Seredkyvychi are from 18306.
It’s located in the territory of Yavoriv district, Lviv region, in the western part of Ukraine. Its
geographical coordinates: 500 09’ 17”N 230 32’ 51”E. The plains are dominat tyle of landscape. The
hills are about 320-370m height, the average altitude is 316m. The area of Seredkevychi is 3,8 км2.
There are a lot of ravines and gullies. This trrritory is situated on the main European watershed. It is
located in the typical rural area, that’s why the agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for local
population.
SMOLYN
The village of Smolyn is community number 2 in our study. The village was founded in the
13 century. It’s located in the territory of Yavoriv district, Lviv region, in the western part of Ukraine.
Its geographical coordinates: 500 09’ 18” N 230 27’ 45” E. The territory is covered mostly by plains.
The hills are about 320-370m height, the average altitude is 316m. There is a lot of ravines and
gullies. The territory belongs to the main European watershed. It is located in the rural area, that’s
why the agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for local population. The area of Smolyn is
2,43km2. If we compare Smolyn with Seredkevychi, in the village of Smolyn the peasants possess
the bigger farm plots (about 25-30% more).
ZAHORB
The village of Zahorb is the rural settlement number 3 in our study. The village founded in
the 16 century. It’s located in the territory of the Velykobereznianskyi district, the Transcarpatian
region, in the south-western part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates: 49° 0′ 48″ N, 22° 39′ 46″
E.
The type of its territory landscape is mountainous. That’s why Zahorb has the status “the
mountainous village”. According to the law of Ukraine some additional payments from state budjet
are added to the awerage pensions, scholarships, salaries of its inhabitants (called “mountainous
payements” and it’s 25%) are added. The average altitude is 526m. Village area is 36,547 km2.
Near the village there are mountain forests where the villagers go to pick berries. Next to the village
there is Mt. Cheremkha, height -1130m. which is a part of the massif in the Ukrainian Carpathians.
The length of the village is 7km. Zahorb is the village of some social contrasts caused by natural
differences. The richer part of the village lies near the railway line and in the valley, formed by the
Uzh, the largest river in the region, 133km length. Its basin area is 2750 km2. But higher and nearer
to Mt.Cheremkha the households are poorer and the life of the people is more difficult. In thie upper
part of the village the villagers go more often to collect blueberries.
STRYCHAVA
The village of Strychava is the rural settlement number 4 in our study. The village was
founded in the 17 century.
It’s located in the territory of the Velykobereznianskyi district, the Transcarpatian region, in
the southwestern part of Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates: 48° 57′ 43″ N, 22° 29′ 29″ E. The
type of territory is mountainous landscapes, but the “mountainious” status is not officially confirmed.
The average altitude is 378m. Village area is 9,9 км2. Strychava isn’t a big but picturesque village,
which lies 3km. up from the river valley Oh (in Ukrainian called Uzh).
KOLODIAZNE
The village of Kolodiazne is the rural settlement number 5 in our study. The village was founded in
early 15 century.
It’s located on the territory of Bereznivskyi district, Rivne region, in the western part of
Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are: 500 55’ 00” N 260 53’ 01”E. Its area is flat. The average
5
6
V. Slobodian "Churches of Ukraine. Peremyshl eparchy. Lviv-1998. - 864 pages).
http://w1.c1.rada.gov.ua/pls/z7503/A005?rdat1=01.10.2012&rf7571=21626
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altitude is 178m. Village area is 1,35 km2 . Kolodziane is situated in the agricultural region that’s why
the agriculture is the main occupation (activity) for the local population.
BYSTRYCHI
The village of Bystrychi is the rural settlement number 6 in the study. The village was
founded in the 17 century.
It’s located on the territory of Bereznivskyi district, Rivne region, in the western part of
Ukraine. Its geographical coordinates are: 500 52’ 56” N 260 54’ 21”E.
The territory is flat and swampy. The average altitude is 178m. Village area is 3,93 km2.
Bystrychi is situated in the agricultural region that’s why farming is the main occupation (activity) for
the local population.
3.2 Demographics
The process of migration abroad is observed in each of studied villages. The typical
seasonal migration aimed to work abroad is mostly directed to Poland, to Russia and also to other
regions of Ukraine (from regions 1 and 3). From region 2 people also go abroad in order to earn
some money, they go to the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. The predominant work type
abroad is:

seasonal agricultural – men and women;

construction – men;

service sector – women.
The age structure of the population is presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Age structure
Seredkevychi
Smolyn
Zahorb
Strychava
Kolodiazne
Bystrychi
Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity Age Quantity
00-7
89
107
0-2
13
0-2
20
0-2
51
0-2
166
10
117-9
32
126
3-5
17
3-5
12
3-5
96
3-5
161
19
102051
193
6
6
6
2
6
19
6-7
121
14
34
153543
196
7-9
12
7-9
12
7-9
46
8-9
110
17
54
18551010101030
30
30
12
63
215
19
59
14
14
14
14
60
2015151515170
and
110
16
3
57
120
34
17
17
17
17
>
3518181818220
16
10
68
84
54
19
19
19
19
552020202034
118
50
294
659
59
34
34
34
34
60
35353535and
84
154
65
278
699
54
59
54
54
>
60
55555536
and
55
157
149
59
59
59
>
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60
and
>
111
60
and
>
305
60
and
>
477
The correlation between the amount of men and women, the amount of inhabitants and
households in each village is given below (table 4).
Table 4 Gender specificity
Name
of Gender composition
Number of Number of
village
inhabitants households
Women, % Men, %
Seredkevychi
50,2
49,8
753
210
Smolyn
50,7
49,3
762
170
Zahorb
49,1
50,9
259
186*
Strychava
47,3
52,7
241
68**
Kolodiazne
51,04
48,96
1443
390
Bystrychi
51,5
48,5
2961
900
*there are 186 households but 25 of them are empty (no one lives).
**there are 68 households but 16 of them are empty (no one lives).
3.3 Infrastructure availability
There is electricity in all villages. The gas supply is only in region “Polissia”.
There isn’t gas supply for heating in two other regions. People use only liquefied petroleum gas. 1 or
2 cylinders per year on average are used by one household.
Running water supply sytems is established only in the village of Smolyn (region 1) in two
other regions there is no central water supply systems.
3.4 Economic data
The official level of unemployment after the methodology of the International Labour
Organization (ILO) in 2013 in Ukraine in general made 7,7 % (for rural population – 8,1%). In Lviv
region this index was 7,5%, in Transcarpathian region – 8,2% and in Rivne region – 10,3%7
Aaccording to official figures, the people who own the plots of land are not considered
unemployed. If we don’t take the owners of the plots of land into the consideration, the level of the
unemployment will be higher. In fact, income from agriculture is low therefore people are forced to
seek work in the cities or abroad. As a conclusion, the main part of population work in the
households or have the temporary work abroad („earnings”), as well as in big cities of Ukraine.
According to the data of the Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine8 the poverty datum line in
Ukraine in 2013 made 24,7%. In Lviv region – 28,9%, in Transcarpathian region – 20,6% and in
Rivne region – 49,1%.
3.5 Major economic activities
The core economic activity is the work at own private household. After disbanding of cooperative farms the local authorities distributed proportionally the patches of land (share) among the
members of this cooperative farms. Now most of people are working on their own plots of land.
These plots are used mostly for:
7
8
http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua
http://www.mlsp.gov.ua/labour/control/uk/publish/category?cat_id=160211
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
making hay for cows and horses;

growing potatoes and many other vegetables;

production of wheat and oat.
People cultivate wheat, potatoes, carrots, beets. They are also engaged in cattle breeding
(cows, pigs and hens). Agriculture is more developed in plain regions (“Roztochchia and Polissia”),
in mountainous regions like “Transcarpathia” agriculture is underdeveloped, because of terrain
conditions and low fertility. All three regions are the regions with the high forest cover, that’s why
people go to the forest to pick mushrooms, berries and other resources. They pick it both for further
sale and for their own needs also. In regions No.2 and No.3 there are the collecting points for picked
bilberries. For some people non-wood forest resources are a very significant source of income.
Manufacturing industry in the studed regions under investigation is not concentrated. There
are few workplaces only in the studied villages. That’s why, significant part of rural population go
abroad or is mooving to the big cities in Ukraine in order to earn some money.
The number of workplaces in the villages is as follows:
Seredkevychi: school – 35, the local authority the village council – 4, the heath post – 2,
several shops – 5. Some people work in the forestry (approximately 50 workplaces in general);
Smolyn: school – 36, the local authority the village council – 4, the heath post – 2, several
shops – 4, village club – 1, library – 1. Some people (3 men) work in the forestry and 10 men work
on the farm (generally near 60);
Zahorb: school – 4, the local authority selfgoverning Council – 5, the health post – 2, shops
– 3, the village club – 1, the library – 1 (about 20 in general);
Strychava: school – 18, the local authority selfgoverning Council – 5, the health post – 5,
shops – 2. (generally near 60);
Kolodiazne: school – 40, shops – 6, the sawmill – 20 (in general 66);
Bystrychi: Secondary Educational Complex "School I – III levels –preschool educational
institution" – 90, the local authority selfgoverning Council – 8, the post office – 4, the rural library – 1,
the rural clinic of general practice of family medicine – 10, the House of Culture – 2; Bystrytskyi
forestry – 65, 5 shops – 9, 3 cafes – 9 (in general 194).
3.6 Seasonal calendar
Based on own observations and respondents’ feedback it was generated a calendar-table
where the activity of local population by month have been showed.
Table 5 Seasonal calendar
Month
Activity
Forest: birch sap harvest.
March
Agr.: ploughing and fertilizing (manuring) the ground.
April-May
Agr. planting: potatoes, beets, carrots, onions, garlic, beans, etc.
May-June
Agr.: weeding in the plots
Forest: collecting blueberries - late June (if the blueberries grow higher in the
mountains, they ripe later), wild strawberries, raspberries, collecting the first
June
mushrooms.
Agr.: making the hay, which is mowed and dried the whole summer.
Forest: gathering blueberries, blackberries, raspberries and mushrooms.
July
Agr.: Harvest hay
Forest: gathering blackberries, mushrooms and cranberries
August
Agr.: Harvest hay. Start collecting potatoes.
September- Forest: Collecting mushrooms, cranberries
October
Agr.: Collection of potatoes, beets, carrots, beans, apples, pears and so on.
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OctoberNovember
DecemberJanuary
Forest: gathering mushrooms.
Forest: sale of dried mushrooms
3.7 Major markets and market access
Region 1:
Rava-Ruska is the nearest market (for all products: agricultural, forest, livestock) and it is
19 km far from Seredkevychi and 17 km far from Smolyn. The fare of the round trip is nearly of 2
dollars.
The most popular market is in Novoyavorivsk – distance to the market is 37 km from
Seredkevychi and 33 km. from Smolyn. The population in Novoyavorivsk is about 30 thousand
people. The fare of the round trip is nearly of 3 dollars for both villages.
People use market in Yavoriv also (the district centre, town with the population of 13
thousand people), 30 km far from Seredkevychi and 26 km far from Smolyn. .
The forest products are mostly sold in Novoyavorivsk and in Lviv (it is far but the
population is over 700 thousand people). Sometimes they are sold in Yavoriv too and rarely in
Rava-Ruska (a small town where the market functions only once a week).
There is no procurement center to collect mushrooms and berries in the village.
Region 2:
The nearest market for all products: agricultural, livestock, and forest is in the centre of
the district in Velykyi Bereznyi. Its population is 7 thousand people. That it is 27km far from Zahorb
and 8km far from Strychava. The fare of the round trip is $ 2.5 for Zahorb and $ 0.25 for Smolyn
inhabitants.
Other big market is in regional center Uzhgorod. The distance to Uzhgorod is 68 km from
Zahorb and 50 km. from Strychava. The population in Uzhgorod is over 115 thousand people. The
fare of the round trip is $ 5 from Zahorb and $ 1.25 from Strychava.
The distance to the nearest train station and the bus stop is 4km on foot from Zahorb and
3 km. from Strychava.
Sale of forest products is directly in the village – there are procuring items. This year
(2014) according to the responses of local people they have already gathered and sold about 2tons.
They sometimes sell blueberries and cranberries on the border with Slovakia. The prise is little bit
high there. The inhabitants also go to Velykyi Bereznyi and to Uzhhorod to sell their collected
berries and mushrooms too.
Region 3:
The market for agricultural and forest products (the nearest and the most popular with the
peasants) is in the center of the district, in Berezne that it is 15km far from Kolodziane and 18km far
from Bystrychi. The fare of the round trip is $1.2 and $1.7 suitably.
Market in the city of Rivne people use too. The distance to the regional center Rivne is 77
km from Kolodziane and 80 km. from Bystrychi. The fare of the round trip is $4.8 and $5.3
accordinly.
Sometimes the market in Kostopil is visited by them too. It’s 52 km far from Kolodziane.
Forest products are the most frequently sold in the markets in Berezne (its population is
over 13 thousand people) and in Rivne (its population is near 250 thousand people), rarely in big
villages of this district (but the market functions only once a week there).
3.8 Major land cover and land uses
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Region 1:
There are forests and fields near the two villages. Forest cover in the region is 28.5%.
Deciduous forests (beech, oak, hornbeam), coniferous (pine) and also mixed forests (beech and
pine) predominate in this region.
Fields used intensively for haymaking and feeding crops - 40%, growing potatoes – 23%,
cereals – 21% and others – 16%. Large areas of marginal fields are not used for agricultural
production nowadays in Seredkevychi. More and more the forest cover is restoring here as well as
there are a lot of wild strawberries. They are an important source of income for local people. The
owners of the agricultural land are the local inhabitants (the typical size of their plot is 1.75 in
Seredkevychi and 2.5 ha in Smolyn). There are 100 hectares of frolicking land in Seredkevychi. This
land is partly used as pasture. It could be transferred to the peasants’ farmlands. There aren’t big
farmers in the area interested to lease this land. There are such reasons: it’s not enough productive
or the villagers don’t let any “strangers” to cultivate it.
In the village of Smolyn there are big farmers who hold the peasants’ land on lease. Each
household in the village has a land plot. If villagers do not want to cultivate the land by themselves,
they can rent it out, because in the village there is a biger scale farmer who uses the land of other
villagers and pays them rent for it.
Forest land is owned by: RLP “Ravske Roztochchia” that occupies the area of 19103
hectares – protected area category V according to IUCN. And forest enterprise “SE Rava-Ruska
forestry” – forestry, which manage forests including harvesting operations. The population has no
right to harvest timber for or wood for fuel. It is considerd as illegal logging and punishable by the
law. But such cases happens.
Region 2:
The surrounding area is mostly coverd by forest (51.4% of forests in the Transcarpathian
region). This forest tree species include beech, fir-beech, fir-spruce, fir, beech sycamore, hornbeam
beech forests. There is a big agricultural area too. A part of this agricultural land is not used. The
collective farm has disbanded, and its areas are now handled only partially. Owners of the
agricultural land are the local inhabitants (the typical size of a plot of land in the villages is 1.14 ha).
Currently on the other areas the villagers make the hay, graze their cattle, and restore the forest. In
the new naturaly rstored forest on abandoned agricultural land, the farmers harvest wood. Near the
villages is frolicking land (subject to allotment) – it is partly used as the pasture for the cattle.
Forest land is owned by:
• Uzhansky NPP, category V according to IUCN. This is nature protected area .
• Forest Enterprise "SE Velyky Bereznyy Forestry" – forestry enterprise, which makes all
forestry management operations, including wood harvesting;
• Enterprise Agrolis -forestry enterprise, which makes all forestry management operations,
including wood harvesting ;
The population has no right to cut timber. It is punishable by law as illegal activity.
However, sometimes the inhabitants cut the trees for their households needs (construction, fuel
etc.).
Region 3:
In Polissia region forests are the dominant land use in landscape ( forest cover is 36.4),
there is also the agricultural land use there. The coniferous forest (pine) and mixed coniferousdeciduous (oak-pine) forests predominate there. Owners of the agricultural land are the local
inhabitants (the typical size of a plot of land in the village is 1.93ha in Kolodyazne and 2.15ha in
Bystrychi). A small area of agricultural land currently is not used for any purpose. Some small areas
of this abandoned agricultural land and some were afforested. Currently there are no big farmers
who would like to lease these lands. Maybe this is due to the reluctance of farmers to lease because
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of low profitability of agriculture and the threat of soil depletion (international companies as
agricultural holding often grow industrial bioenergy crops that deplete the soil, e.g., rape).
The forest land is owned by Bystrytsky Forestry Enterprise called "Sosnivskyi forestry." The
peasants don’t have the right to cut the trees. In case such case registerd they should pay penalties
according to the law.
3.9 Description of conservation areas
Region 1:
Smolyn and Seredkevychi are located near the protected area zone. Conservation area in
this territory is known as the Regional Landscape Park “Ravske Roztochchia”. Category IUCN – V,
protected landscape. Its area is 19103 hectares. It extends over 30 km from east to west; its
maximum width is approx 10 km. It was created in 2007.
The main reason for the establishement of the protected area was the preservation of the
typical pine, beech, unique pine-oak-beech natural forests, meadow and wetland areas.
The landscape park “Ravske Roztochchia” is also a part of the projected international
Ukrainian-Polish biosphere reserve “Roztochchia”, which was created to preserve valuable natural
historical and cultural complexes and objects.
Limitations: the fire can be kindled only in the permitted areas, cutting of trees is prohibited.
People collect mushrooms and berries in this conservation area – this activity is permitted.
Region 2:
This is the conservation area near the villages Zahorb and Strychava – Uzhansky
National Park. Uzhansky National Nature Park was created in September 1999 on the basis of
protected objects that existed in the upper reaches of the river Uzh already at the beginning of
the twentieth century and it is the protected area of the category II as it was defined by the IUCN.
Uzhansky NNP currently covers an area of 39159 hectares. The park is the part of the
International Polish-Slovak-Ukrainian Biosphere Reserve "Eastern Carpathians".
Limitations: the fire can be kindled only in the permitted areas and cutting down the trees is
prohibited. Regime of restricted access to the national park depends on the zones. National park
consists of 4 zones:
 the protected zone - the access to the territory is forbidden;
 economic zone - you can pick mushrooms, berries, medicinal plants, mow hay;
 controlled recreation zone - you can only walk paths;
 stationary recreation zone - you can stay on the territory;
People gather mushrooms and berries in a protective area where it is allowed.
Region 3:
There aren’t any protected objects in the neighboring territory. The nearest protected area
is the Nadsluchanskyy regional landscape park of the category IUCN V, it’s the protected
landscape. Its area is 17211hectares. This park is located in the valley of the Sluch River. It was
created in 2000. There is also a historical monument on the territory of the park; it’s the Hubkivskyy
castle.In this site people from villages Kolodiazne and Bystrychi do not pick any non-wood forest
products.
3.10 Tenure and governance
Land used in Ukraine is subject to the law and depends on the category of land. The
peculiarities of forest land use are spelled out in the Forest Code of Ukraine (2006), of lands of
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agricultural designation usage in the Land Code (2006).
The supreme regulatory body that provides the execution of national policy in the domain of
forest land and lands of agricultural designation usage is the Ministry of Agrarian Policy and Food of
Ukraine http://minagro.gov.ua/). Forest lands and lands of agricultural designation are subordinated
to this Ministry. The State Agency of Forest Resources of Ukraine is in charge of the forest land.
The State Agency of Land Resources is in charge of lands of agricultural designation. Protected
areas are under the direction of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine that
controls the process of environmental protection legislation keeping.
In all three regions the local rural population are the owners of their plots of land (shares)
where they can cultivate any crops. They are not allowed to sell their plots of land, change the
designated use of the land (plant forest trees) and pollute the soils. In case of violation of these
rules there will be provided warning or fine, and, in some cases, people who violate these rules will
bear criminal responsibility.
In the forest people have no right to harvesrt timber. It is allowed to get in for free the
boughs the diameter of which doesn’t exceed 3 cm. It is allowed to pick for free such non-wood
products as mushrooms and berries without any preliminary permits except for industrial procuring
provisions that also require the permits.
Access restriction to protected areas depends on their status. Within the protected area in
region 1 (category 5 according to International Union for Conservation of Nature), there is no
restrictions on picking mushrooms and berries. Within region 2 the protected area of “Uzhanskiy
national nature park” has higher protection degree, though in utility zones picking of berries and
mushrooms is allowed as in the ordinary forest. Access is restricted only to protected area, but local
population doesn’t go there anyway because it is in the hard-to-reach areas where mushrooms and
berries do not grow.
3.11 Government and other development/conservation projects
The Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine implement conservation projects
through state (national) and regional programs. Their priorities are based on Law of Ukraine “On
main foundations (strategy) of the state environmental policy of Ukraine for the period until 2020”
which is ratified by the Ukrainian Parliament in Dec 21, 2010, N 2818-VI9 and Government decision
from May 25, 2011, N 577-р “On approval of the National Plan of Activities on natural environment
protection for 2011-2015”10. Among such programs National Program on River Dnipro Rehabilitation
on the period until 2021, State Program for National Ecological Network Formation 2000-2015,
activities in the framework of the Carpathian Convention in 2014: development o the documents for
the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties: preparation for the signing of the Protocol on
sustainable transport to the Carpathian Convention, the approval of the Strategic Action Plan for the
implementation of the Protocol on Sustainable Forest Management should be mentioned.
Many conservation projects are implemented by international and national, and also regional
or even local NGOs. For example by the WWF in March 2011 regional project was launched, which
aims to prepare the Danube Delta for possible impacts of climate change. The three-year project
“Climate proofing the Danube Delta through integrated land and water management” involves
Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. The project is implemented with the support of the International
Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR). WWF Project “Climate Forum East”
aims to build the capacity of civil society to engage with policy-making and contribute to the political
agenda in environmental governance and climate change. Launched in January 2013, Climate
Forum East unites six countries - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine.
Each country will establish o reinforce existing national network of civil society organizations. These
9
http://zakon1.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2818-17/conv
http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/577-2011-%D1%80/conv
10
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networks will develop national climate vulnerability assessments, identify most vulnerable sectors
and groups in each country and suggest concrete recommendations for decision-makers and civil
society to address adaptation gaps11.
At the same time main part of the projects which are implemented by the Ukrainian NGOs
are aimed more on environmental education of society, preventing climate change and other
negative impacts on environment, energy efficiency, waste management and improving of
environmental law. Not so many projects are aimed towards implementation of practical solution on
landscape and biodiversity conservation for the specific areas.
Many of the development projects which are implemented by international organizations in
Ukraine (UNDP, CIDA, USAID, SIDA and other agencies, foundations) strength the local
governance and capacities of the rural population. Not many of them are oriented directly to forest
sector. One of the recent projects is a project supported by FAO “Consolidation of forest policy in
Ukraine”12 leaded by the Forest Resource Agency of Ukraine. The project started in October 2013
and it aims to improve the dialogue between the various stakeholders to discuss issues of forests
and forestry in Ukraine and the development of a conceptual roadmap of the forest sector in
Ukraine.
3.12 Calamities
In 2013 (spring) the hail destroyed the sowing area of cereals in Region 1. In 1995 there
was the division (fragmentation) of he village agricultural land into small farms plots in all regions.
3.13 Other relevant issues
We can make such conclusions based on the study results (personal observation,
responses in the focus group):
Seredkevychi
This is an agricultural region. Mostly households have horses. In other regions there are
less horses in households. The big income from the forest people receive from the sale of wild
strawberries. The people collect less wild strawberries than the blueberries by its volume quantity
but taking into consideration its price – the lowest price is 0.38$ and the highest price is 6$ per litter,
the strawberries bring the big revenue in this village. The people there gather more wild strawberries
than in other villages of this district. They pick them in the surrounding areas near the village, on
their agricultural plots of land, which they didn’t use (not plow). Very often children sell them
standing in the major highway of the district.
The scale of blueberries gathering is typical for this region village as it is in Yavoriv district.
Blueberries are also harvested in the forests near the village and sometimes the peasants drive to
Richky (village that is 25 km far from Seredkevychi, near Rava-Ruska).
The firewood is not included in people’s income. it’s only an expense for the population. In
general the villagers have no the right to harvest firewood in the forest. But there are cases when
local people are working in forestry and having temporary jobs (eg., planting or cultivating trees)
don’t receive their salary in cash but they are only receiving wood. Certainly, it is informally
(illegally) and the people don’t like retelling it.
It is worth adding that Serdkevychi is located not far from Yavorivski proving ground where
there are military exercises. It is also a good place to gather mushrooms for the people from
Serdkevychi. But in 2014 in connection with the military operation in eastern Ukraine, these
exercises are regular there and consequently the entry is prohibited in the Yavorivskyi military
proving ground.
11
12
http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/ukraine/projects/.
http://dklg.kmu.gov.ua/forest/control/uk/publish/article?art_id=118709&cat_id=118714
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Smolyn
This is an agricultural region too. The farmers living here grow potatoes and cereals mainly.
The highest income from the forest people receive from the sale of blueberries. The scale
of gathering blueberries is typical for the region. Blueberries are harvested in the forest near the
village or in the village Richky (which is 25 km far from Smolyn and it is near the town of RavaRuska). The villagers of Smolyn gather relatively a large quantity of blackberries too. There is a
collection point in Smolyn where people sell their blackberries and receive $ 0, 5 for 1 kg. This year
the collection point has bought 400 kg of blackberries from the peasants. The inhabitants of Smolyn
gather mushrooms too. As a rule they gather them in Yavorivskyi ground which is 8 km far from
Smolyn. But the entry to this ground is prohibited according to the reason, mentioned above.
Zahorb
This is mountainous region. The life of the people is very hard. The paved road leads to the
village, where there is the traffic during the all year, but in the middle of the village the asphalt ends
and the village has only dirty roads. In rainy weather it’s impossible to drive there.
Many houses (about 25) in the village are abandoned . To some of these households (15)
relatives or children come regularly but other 10 houses are abandoned forever.
This village is largely dependent on the forest. This is especially due to gathering berries:
blueberries, small amount of cranberries, blackberries, strawberries. The blueberries are the most
important product of the woods. That’s why there is a purveying centre in this village. As a rule
people gather blueberries on Mt. Cheremkha. There are special tools picking them. People can
gather 40 liters a day maximum, they usually gather 20-30liters. On top of Mt. Cheremkha there is a
field of blueberries which has 10hectares. The problem is said no to pick up the blueberries but to
pull down them.
This territory is not rich on mushrooms. The peasants use them mainly for their own needs,
they often gather mushrooms in other areas.
Firewood. In the village there is no pipeline with gas, that’s why the wood is the main
source of their fuel. The people buy the firewood. It is not makes their income but expenses. The
price of the firewood is different: 1m3 of French forest (the firewood in the forest, not chopped or
brought) costs $1: 1m3 of chopped firewood and brought to the yard costs $20. There are cases
when the wood is taken from the villagers’ own fields, which are not cultivated – in this case the
firewood is included in income.
Water. There isn’t any water supply in the village. The peasants of the village have the
water from wells, and some residents make water descents from the forest.
The agriculture is mainly connected with growing the potatoes. The villagers use potatoes
for their own needs: for eating by themselves, feeding their pets, for selling very rarely as an
exception and if there are some extra, potatoes can be exchanged for mixed fodder. They feed pigs,
because they don’t sow all cereals (the climate isn’t suitable), they don’t grow corn either because of
wild boars which dig. Many villagers complain that often a third of the planted potatoes is pitted.
People tie their dogs overnight near their fields. Other crops are: carrots, red beets, beans, onions,
cucumbers, less tomatoes, corn to get the cobs (not always enough for the whole year, and may
buy more). They sow only oats to have a crop rotation and it’s mowed for hay, it’s never ripped or
threshed.
In the village there is only the primary school, where the director has the intention to create
a museum of folk life in order to preserve the culture and traditions of last generations and we were
willingly showed the collected material for the future museum.
On the top of Mt. Cheremkha there is a military cemetery dated from the World War I,
which still preserve tombstones with inscriptions. Mt. Cheremkha is one of the main places of battles
of the First World War. Very long trenches across the top of the mountain are clearly visible.
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According to researchers13 654 soldiers were buried here. This cemetery consists of 19 war graves
(12 individual and 6 mass graves). The 13 Names of Austro-Hungarian soldiers buried here are
known. The military cemetery was probably founded in the years 1916-1917. Tombs are located in
four rows. In the front row on the either side there are six individual graves. There are also two mass
graves. This cemetery was kept in a good condition, but it was destroyed probably in the 50-ies of
XX century during the construction of the state border strip of the former Soviet Union.
Strychava
On the basis of our study results (personal observation, responses in focus groups) we can
make the following conclusion:
The village is largely dependent on forest resources. These villagers mostly pick
blackberries, blueberries, wild strawberries. For gathering blueberries the peasants must go to the
tract called Black Mlaky and to Mt. Stinka, which is 9km far away from the village. That’s why the
blueberries are gathered by those who have a lot of time and good health. Blueberries grow at the
altitude 60-700m.They can be found partly in Ukrainian, partly on the Slovak sides. There are
organized groups of blueberries collectors that take the permission from the guards and go to collect
at the border zone, “out the strip”, as the locals say. Mushrooms and blackberries are mostly sold by
the peasants. There are a lot of blackberries around the village and when there is a good harvest of
them the purveying station is directly open in the village.
The situation with firewood, water and agriculture in Strychava is the same as it is in
Zahorb.
Kolodyazne and Bystrychi
This is an agricultural region. Most households have horses and cows. The people receive
highest income from the forest due to the sale of blueberries. The scale of gathering the blueberries
is typical for this district. Blueberries are harvested by peasants in the woods near the village. The
inhabitants of Kolodziane don’t need the firewood as much as other villagers, because the village is
gasified.
4. Results and discussion
4.1 Income share by source
The income structure of local inhabitants in three
Transcarpathia and Polissia) is shown on the picture given below.
13
study regions (Roztochchia,
http://zakarpattya.net.ua/Zmi/80381-Viiskovi-pokhovannia-Velykobereznianskoho-raionuZakarpattia
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Figure 3. Income shares by source – Roztochchia.
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Figure 4. Income
Transcarpathia.
shares
by
source
–
Figure 5. Income shares by source –
Polissia.
As it can be seen from the graphs, income by source is similar for all regions. That is why
we complete them all together.
Figure 6. Income shares by source – all regions.
Figure 6 shows income shares by source in the three studied regions in Ukraine. Therefore
36% of income comes from “other income”, which consists mainly of pensions (56%), support from
government (33%) (scholarships for students, maternity allowance and support to families with more
than two children) and remittances that are sent by relatives from outside of Ukraine to the
household (10%). Animal income (33%) is the next important source of income, which mainly
comes from meat (29%), cottage cheese (21%), sour cream (19%), milk (11%) and eggs (9%). The
third most important source of income is wage income (25%). This is because many people who
live in these regions and cannot find employment in their locations work abroad on seasonal jobs or
in the construction and service industries (in Poland, Russia, Czech Republic, etc.), bringing home
50% of wage income. The most common types of work in these communities are teacher (10%) and
salesperson (7%). The next is agricultural income (12%), coming mostly from potatoes (64%),
apples (7%), wheat (6%), beans (5%), carrots (3%), red beets (2%), cucumbers (2%), and
strawberries (2%). Forest income (5%) is the next important source, which includes blueberries
(43%), mushrooms (28%), wild strawberries (10%), tree branches (4%), blackberries (4%), firewood
(2%) and others. Income from business is 3% - mostly coming from trade (71%) and carpentry
(12%). Net livestock income is very negative. This is because households that own livestock
derive very little cash income from it.
Who is involved in each income source?
Other income: senior citizens receive pensions, students – scholarships, women –
assistance from the state for children (there are many large families in villages). Animal income:
senior citizens, youth, children, men and women – everyone who can do the work and is free from
other jobs. Wage income: more women are employed in the country (teacher, salesperson). Work
abroad is more common for men (seasonal and in the construction industry). Women work abroad
less frequently, mainly in the service sector. Agricultural income: everyone who can do the work and
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is free from studying or from another job (senior citizens, youth, children, men and women). Hard
physical work is done by men (ploughing) and lighter by women (plant growing). Forest income:
berries are collected mostly by women and children and mushrooms are collected mostly by men.
Tree branches and firewood are collected mostly by men. Several families have income from
business. This is mainly trade business and carpentry.
4.2 Frequency and value of forest products
Region 1:
Circle diagram in the picture 7 shows the share of each forest product in the general forest
income. How many percents of the populations go to gather each forest product (popularity of
gathering frequency) is shown in the picture 8.
Figure 7. Most common forest product by value in
Roztochchia, %
Figure 8. Most common forest product by frequency in
Roztochchia, %
The most common forest product in Region 1 is blueberries (43%). Villagers collect them
for sale and for eating (making jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking and
consuming raw in summer) and also as gifts for friends and relatives in cities. Blueberries from this
region are traditionally the most expensive. This is due to two reasons: 1) the berries are clean (no
leaves) and are not crushed (because they are collected by hand and not with the use of special
tools, as in the other two regions); 2) the berries are organic, so they are in great demand. Mostly
women and older children pick them.
Mushrooms (25%) occupy the second place. They are collected for sale, own
consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and dry and can for the winter) and also as gifts.
Mushroom dishes, like national cuisine are very popular during Lent. To collect mushrooms is very
popular in Ukraine. City residents go to the woods very often during the mushroom-picking season.
This is a kind of a recreational activity for city dwellers. Mushrooms are collected by both adults and
children; however, men enjoy collecting mushrooms more than collecting berries.
The third common forest product is wild strawberries (20%). These are the most valuable
and expensive forest berries in all regions. Wild strawberries are approximately twice as expensive
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as blueberries. The market price for strawberries is nearly 50-60 UAH per liter. The price for
blueberries is from 18-20 UAH to 30 UAH per liter. Collecting strawberries is as difficult as collecting
blueberries. But they are more expensive because strawberries contain more vitamins and are more
delicious. There are more blueberries than strawberries, supply of strawberries are always less than
blueberries. Wild strawberries are harvested more in the village Seredkevychi on undivided
agricultural land (subject to allotment) and on deforested areas. Also, villagers dig up wild
strawberry plants in the forest and transplant them into their gardens. Wild strawberries are
collected for sale, for own consumption (raw and for making jam) and as gifts. This product is
collected, the same as blueberries, mainly by women and older children. Very often children sell
wild strawberries at major highways of the district.
The next important forest product is blackberry (6%). Blackberries are collected for sale,
own consumption (jam, marmalade, wine) and as gifts. They are collected only in one place in
Region 1 (the village of Smolyn). They are picked by everyone, but mostly by women and older
children.
The other products are tree branches and young trees stems (2%) which are widely used
for making supports for beans; raspberries (1,6%) used for eating and making jam; wicker broom
(0,8%) traditionally used for house cleaning; birch juice (0,6%) used for own consumption; medicinal
plants (0,5%) used for preparing teas; and firewood (0,5%) used for heating.
In Roztochchia most people pick mushrooms – 33% of respondents, 15% of them pick
blueberries, 13% pick wild strawberries, many people also pick blackberries – 12%. Other products
like raspberries, birch sap, wood bundle brooms and tree branches are picked more seldom.
Region 2:
In pictures given below there is a structure of forest products in accordance with revenue
position in region 2 (Picture9) and structure of forest products in accordance with frequency of
gathering (Picture 10).
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Figure 9. Most common
valueTranscarpathia, %
forest
product
by
Figure 10. Most common forest product by
frequency in Transcarpathia, %
The most common forest product in this region is blueberries (43%). Blueberries are
collected for sale and for eating (making jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in
baking, and consuming in summer) and also as gifts. Women and older children are the main
collectors. There are many collection points in the region. There are regions in the Ukrainian
Carpathians where blueberries are harvested in large quantities.
Mushrooms are the second (25%) most common forest product in Transcarpathia. In most
cases this is boletus edulis (porcini). As in Region 1, mushrooms are collected for sale, own
consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes, to dry and freeze for winter) and also as gifts. This is a
very popular forest product throughout all of the Ukrainian Carpathians. For some families
mushrooms are the most important source of income. Mostly men collect them.
The next most common product is tree branches (11%). They are used as supports for
beans and for making Christmas trees and other Christmas decorations as shown below.
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Support
for
beans
Photo by: Andriy Zhyla
Photo by: Andriy Zhyla
Figure
11.
(Phaseolus)
Figure 12. Christmas tree made
from branches
Blackberries (4%) occupies the fourth place. Blackberries are collected for sale and for
eating (making jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in baking, and consuming in
summer) and also as gifts. Women and children are the main collectors.
Red bilberries are also collected in Region 2. They account for 3% of forest income. This
plant does not grow in Region 1, but only in Regions 2 and 3. The main purpose for collecting these
berries is for own consumption (making jam, fruit drinks and in baking) and for sale.
The next product is firewood (4%) – it is used only for own consumption (for heating and
cooking). Men are the main collectors of this product.
Other products include wild strawberries (2%), reindeer lichen (2%), Christmas tree
(1,8 %), birch juice (1,4%), wicker broom (1,1%), nuts (1,4%), raspberry (0,9%) and medicinal plants
(0,3%).
Mushrooms and blueberries is gathered mostly often in Transcarpathia as it is in other
regions. Blackberries occupy the third place in. Transcarpathia.
Region 3 :
The most popular forest products according to revenue position and frequency of gathering
in region are shown in Pictures 13 and 14.
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Figure 13. Most common forest product by Figure 14. Most common forest product by
value in Polissia, %
frequency in Polissia, %
The most common forest product in Polissya is blueberries (42%). Blueberries are
collected for sale and for eating (making jam, freezing for future use, drying in small quantities, in
baking, and consuming raw in summer) and also as gifts. Women and older children are the main
collectors. There are many collection points in the region. The price of blueberries in this region is
the lowest in comparison with the other two regions. This is for two reasons: 1) The berries are
mainly collected by special tools, thus, their quality is low; 2) Poor demand due to the risk that the
berries may have been collected in a contaminated area (Chernobyl accident).
Mushrooms are the second (37%) most common forest product. Like in the other regions,
mushrooms are collected for sale, own consumption (to prepare mushroom dishes and to dry and
can for the winter) and also as gifts. Men are the main collectors.
Then we have other kinds of berries: cranberries (3%) - grow only in this region, because
there are swamps there; wild strawberries (3%); and red bilberries (2%). All berries are used for
own consumption and for sale. The next forest product in this region is wild boar. Hunting is not
common in Ukraine. Only in a few cases, people had income from hunting. Typically, these are
forestry workers. This income has a significant share because prices for wild boar are high. Other
common forest products include blackberries (1,6%), firewood (1,5%), raspberries (1,2%), wicker
broom (1,1%), medical plants (1%), hare (0,7%), nuts (0,6%), sorbus berries (0,6%), pine cone
(0,6%), birch juice (0,5%), etc.
As for the frequency of gathering the most popular are mushrooms (37%) and bilberries (15%).
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4.3 Fuelwood
Region 1 (Roztochchia) and Region 2 (Transcarpathia) lack gas supply. In the Carpathians,
a lot of villages lack natural gas supply. Region 3 – Polissia – was provided with gas after the
Chernobyl accident. However, in this region people use not only gas, but fuel wood as well as on a
growing scale, because of the high price of gas.
In the nearest future gas will not be provided, because of the steady increase of gas prices
and the conflict with Russia.
In the communities where there is no gas heating opportunity, people use fuelwood for
heating and cooking, because they do not have an alternative - coal and liquefied natural gas are
very expensive. They sometimes use liquefied natural gas in summer for coking, but this accounts
for a very small percent. Fuelwood is an essential product for survival. The figure below shows the
percentage of the total income each village spends on fuelwood.
Figure 15. The share of the cost of fuelwood in total income, %
In most cases, we did not include firewood in forest income because people cannot take
wood from the forest as mushrooms and berries, they have to pay for it. This is a cost for them and
not a source of income. Only branches not more than 3 cm in diameter are free. The villagers, of
course, steal firewood, but they were afraid to talk about that. According to experts, 10-15% of
villagers steal firewood from the forest. However, even when they steal firewood they do this by
agreement with foresters whom they pay (less than the official price). Foresters are responsible for
their territory - they should protect it from theft. But if they can derive income from this, they help
villagers to steal. Inspection authorities fine foresters if they discover tree stumps - evidence that
trees had disappeared. That is why foresters use different schemes to cover up theft. For example,
in pine forests they dig out the tops of stumps and cover these spots with earth. We include
firewood in forest income in the following cases:
1) Fuelwood that people store on their own agricultural land, which is not cultivated;
2) When people work in forest enterprises and receive fuelwood as payment. This is also
illegal, therefore, villagers talked about this reluctantly.
Rules about harvesting. A person can buy firewood in forestry enterprise or in a nature
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reserve (originated from sanitary cuttings only). The official procedure is following: to buy firewood,
one applies to the forestry for an invoice, then pays is off at a bank, and after that brings the
payment receipt from the bank to the forestry, which provides the firewood. There are different
prices for firewood:

From 60 UAH/1 m3 (67 UAH/1 m3 since 1.10.2014) in the mountain region to 130
UAH/1 m3 (160 UAH/1 m3 since 1.10.2014) on the plain. The price is for trees felled in the forest
(FRANCO forest). There will be additional costs: for cutting the wood into smaller pieces, loading it
on a truck and transporting it home.

From 180 UAH/1 m3 on the plain to 240 UAH/1 m3 (260 UAH/1 m3 since 1.10.2014)
in the mountain region. This is the price for trees in lower timber landing (Нижній склад). The trees
are already cut into pieces 1 m long and loaded on the truck.
Also, the price for firewood will be different in the village - it will be higher because of
transportation costs.
The demand for firewood has increased during lat years. Prices have also increased, due
to growing demand and increasing gasoline (oil) prices in Ukraine. Prices for firewood rise every 4
months. The last price increase was on October 1, 2014. There is a high probability that prices will
rise again over the next 4 months.
4.4 Cash and subsistence of forest products
The graphs below show popularly sold and eaten forest products for each region
Region 1:
The figure 16 shows the comparison of sold and eaten forest products by the population.
Figure 16. Cash and subsistence of forest Figure 17. Cash and subsistence of forest
products in Roztochchia, (total value), USD value in Roztochchia, (total value), USD
(PPP).
(PPP).
Blueberries are the most popular product for sale and own consumption, because it is a
traditional forest product for which there is always a big demand. Blueberries are tasty berries that
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are rich in vitamins and, thus, are bought and it doesn’t matter how high their price is.
People are ready to sell any forest products that are in demand. Mushrooms are the
second popular product. They are traditionally used in cooking, especially during Lent. Mushroom
dishes are very popular; and during winter holidays large quantities of marinated mushrooms or
dishes made of dried mushrooms are consumed. The fresh mushrooms are sold well during the
summer and autumn season as well as dried mushrooms during winter. Other berries are also used
for own consumption and for sale: wild strawberries, blackberries and raspberries. All these forest
berries are tasty and rich in vitamins and that is why they are very popular. They are consumed
fresh and are also used for making jam and more rarely compote and wine. The other products are
used only for own consumption. Birch sap is cheap and, thus, it isn’t worth selling at the market.
Products such as firewood, tree branches (used as supports for beans) and wicker brooms are used
only for own consumption, because city dwellers simply do not need them.
Who collects non-wood forest products more frequently? Women and adolescent girls
collect berries, which ripe in the summer, the time of school and college vacations, and, thus, large
families are the traditional collectors of berries. Mushrooms are more often picked by men and
adolescent boys, with women and adolescent girls. A comparison of the share of cash and
subsistence income from forest products in this region shows that villagers sell twice as much forest
products as they consume (see Figure 17).
Region 2:
The figures 18 and 19 show us the comparison of own consumption and for sale of forest
products in Transcarpathia.
Figure 18. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Figure
19.
Cash
and
Transcarpathia, (total value), USD (PPP)
subsistence of forest value in
Transcarpathia, (total value),
USD (PPP)
In Region 2 (Transcarpathia) berries are also the most popular forest non-wood product
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used for sale and own consumption (mainly blueberries) and mushrooms. The third most popular
forest product are tree branches that are used as supports for beans and for making Christmas
trees (from spruce and pine branches). Christmas trees are popular as both whole trees and trees
weaved from branches, being a must-have Christmas and New Year’s decoration. Women and
adolescent girls traditionally collect berries, while mostly men and adolescent boys pick mushrooms.
Everyone who has the time and desire weaves Christmas trees. In Region 2, the shares of forest
products used for sale and own consumption are roughly the same. This is because more
mushrooms are consumed in this region (traditionally almost every household collects them) than
sold. Many other forest products are used here solely for subsistence (firewood, medicinal plants,
wicker brooms, nuts, birch juice and raspberries). This is an indication of a higher forest
dependence in this region where a large share of forest income is used for subsistence (the people
need these products, otherwise they would have to buy substitutes).
Region 3:
Berries and mushrooms are the most popular forest products in Region 3 for own use and
for cash. This can be seen in Figure 20. The gap between cash income and subsistence income
(Figere 21) from forest products is large, especially as compared with Transcarpathia. This is
because much more blueberries are sold than consumed, while other berries are mainly collected
for own consumption.
Figure 20. Cash and subsistence of forest products in Polissia, Figure 21. Cash and subsistence of
(total value), USD (PPP)
forest value in Polissia, (total value),
USD (PPP)
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4.5 RFI over income quintiles
Region 1:
Forest dependence by quintile in “Roztochchia” is shown on Graph 22.
Figure 22. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 1 “Roztochchia”
As it may be seen in the above graph, all quintiles use forest products for own consumption
(subsistence) approximately in equal measure. People traditionally consume large amounts of
mushrooms and berries regardless of their level of income. Forest products are sold by each
quintile, because in each of theme are several households that sell large quantities. Practically all
those, who have the time and desire to work, collect berries and mushrooms for sale. It is collected
less in Quintile 1 – this is because it is made up either of senior citizens, for whom collecting is
physically difficult. In Quintile 2 there is a high share of income from forest products – there are
more unemployed in this group who have enough free time to go to the forest. In Quintile 3 it is
collected less both for sale and own consumption because this group represents agricultural
workers (land cultivation) who have little free time to collect mushrooms and berries. Quintiles 4 and
5 consist of rich people, whose main income comes from their work abroad. However, as this work
is mostly temporary and not stable they periodically go to the forest to collect mushrooms and
berries. Another reason why they sell a lot is that they are used to working and to using every
opportunity to earn money. The more villagers work, the richer they are.
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Region 2:
Figure 23. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Transcarpathia).
In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), all quintiles use forest products for own consumption and for
cash. However, Quintiles 3, 4 and 5, the richer, consume more. For them forest income is not as
important as for the poor and that is why they do not spare these products. The poor quintile (1) and
the average one (3) sell less. The reason – Quintile 3 is made up of employed villagers, who do not
have the time to collect; and Quintile 1 is made up of senior citizens who do not have enough
strength to go to the forest or of younger people who are lazy, (that is maybe they are poor). The
smaller share of income from forest products falls to Quintile 3, because most of the people in this
group have permanent jobs in their regions, thanks to which they fall under the middle-income class.
However, they do not have time to go to the forest. The poor are more dependent on forest income
– Quintile 2 collects a lot of berries and mushrooms for sale. These are large families, in which the
children have grown up, which means that the state is no longer providing assistance. These
children do not yet have an income of their own, but do have time to collect berries and mushrooms.
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Region 3:
Figure 24. Forest income over income quintiles, USD (PPP)/Region 2 (Polissia).
In this region, similarly to the first two, all quintiles use approximately the same amounts of
forest products for own consumption. The fourth quintile sells more forest products – it is made up of
hardworking villagers for whom forest income is the most important.
Quantile 1 – those who are not able to or do not want to. This is the biggest population
group among which there are people who are lazy, seniors or infirm.
Quantile 2 – poor people who work a lot; for this group the revenue they receive from forest
is their main revenue.
Quantile 3 – do not gather much because they have their farm business or are employed
(go to work).
Quantile 4 – people are richer, gather seasonally while they are not earning money.
Quantile 5 – people are the richest, they gather more seldom, revenue received from forest
is insignificant for them.
The richer population has the possibility to use forest products for their own needs and not
to sell because they receive money from different other sources.
4.6 RFI over asset groups
The households in each region were divided into three groups according to their assets.
They were divided into three groups – poor, medium, rich – in the following manner:

All assets of each household were added up to determine the total cost of assets for
each household;

The assets of each household were divided by the AEU equivalent;

All households were divided into three groups – poor, medium, rich – based on the
amounts of assets adjusted by the AEU equivalent.
There are graphs below for the three regions by the following indicator: RFI over asset
groups
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Figure 25. Roztochchia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI
Figure 26. Transcarpathia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI
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Figure 27. Polissia: Cash and Subsistence Forest Income (assets) and RFI
It follows from the graphs that the “rich” quintile is the less dependent on forest products. In
this group, the share of forest income in total income is the smallest. The rich, as compared with the
poor, derive more income from other sources (animal income, other income, wage income).
Consumption of forest products is approximately the same in all quintiles in each region. This is
because people traditionally consume a lot of mushrooms and berries. Regardless of their level of
income, mushrooms and berries remain popular food items in forest dependent communities.
People gather berries and mushrooms more than they need for their own consumption in all
regions. Blueberries, wild strawberries and mushrooms are the expensive ecoproducts, the delicacy
but not the main food products; that’s why they are sold, instead of them the pasta, the cereals, the
household chemicals, the clothes are bought. For many families this is a good opportunity to make
money.
In Region 1, people in the second quintile sell less. These may be those, who work in
agriculture (who cultivate on large areas of land and keep large numbers of livestock) and they
simply do not have the time to collect mushrooms and berries. The rich and the poor sell equal
amounts, because they do not have much farm work (they cultivate less land and keep smaller
numbers of livestock). The poor do not have big farms because there is either no one to do the work
or they do not want to do the work. The rich travel abroad to work and, thus, do not have the
possibility to run large farms. However, as the work abroad is not stable, when they are at home
they collect mushrooms and berries.
In Region 2 (Transcarpathia), agriculture is less developed and thus, the middle group goes
to the forest more often. In Region 3, the rich sell less, because they have other incomes and do not
want to collect berries and mushrooms. This region is more civilized, as compared with the two first
ones and if people have other incomes, not from the forest, they try to avoid hard work (forest
income is not an easy income).
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4.7 Most Important Products
The role of the forest is essential for all the regions under investigation. The most important
forest products for Roztochchia and Transcarpathia are fireplace log pieces (these regions have no
gas supply). As for berries the most important are bilberries.
Table 6 Forest dependence
Region Level of
Access to roads
Gas
Marketing
Need in
forest
(transportation
supply
firewood
dependence
infrastructure)
Do not have forest
Needed
Region
products procurement
for
Average
Normal
None
1
centers (have to bring
survival
the products to the city)
Has Forest Products
Needed
Region
High
Poor
None
Procurement Centers
for
2
survival
Have
Has Forest Products
Needed
Region
Low
Good
gas
Procurement Centers
3
supply
Region 1: The level of forest dependence of the two villages is high. There is no gas
supply and, thus, firewood is needed for survival (heating and cooking). Firewood is either
purchased or received as payment by those who work in the forestry (the latter source is not legal).
Income from berries and mushrooms is a significant source of seasonal income. If income from
agriculture is mostly subsistence income, forest income brings cash.
Region 2: The level of forest dependence of the two villages is very high. Firewood is
needed, as there is no gas supply. Villagers either purchase firewood or harvest it on abandoned
agricultural land. Mushrooms and berries are a significant source of seasonal income for many
households in this region. Income from forest products, similarly with the first region, means real
money. Forest income in this region is higher as compared with the two other regions, because
agriculture here is less developed and livestock breeding is the most cost intensive.
Region 3: Forest dependence is the lowest in this region. The villages have gas supply
and the need in firewood is not high. However, income from mushrooms and berries collection
remains a significant source of seasonal income.
The most important product from Category 1 is firewood. The quantity of this product has
remained unchanged in all the regions during recent years.
Product 2 – Food from the forest: the amount of blueberries has decreased in both villages
in Polissia (Region 3). Its reason are poor collection methods. People collect berries with special
tools that damage the plants.
The amount of wild strawberries has increased in Seredkevychi due to the appearance of
large areas of abandoned agricultural land on which the berries grow.
Feed for agricultural animals from the forest is not used (Category 3); villagers collect
animal feed on their own fields.
Climate is definitely changing. However, it has not substantially affected the crops of
mushrooms and berries yet. That is why in most cases the villagers said that the amount of
mushrooms and berries has not changed during the last 5 years. Nonetheless, these changes are
about to occur. This especially concerns Transcarpathia (Region 2), where blueberries are the most
important product in Category 1. They grow in the high mountains (e.g., on the top of Mountain
Cherymkha, 1,130 m). The upper forest border is constantly ascending, with woody vegetation
driving out shrub vegetation (blueberries) and, thus, there will be less of thise berries because of
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climate change.
5. Conclusion
The key factor that influences community forest dependence is the availability of resources.
If there are berries and mushrooms, the villagers will collect them, regardless of their level of wealth.
If they were richer, they would purchase mushrooms and berries (it does take place in rarecases ),
however, such strong economic growth is improbable.
As for mountain villages (in Transcarpathia), they will rather migrate than become rich
(e.g., the village of Zahorb with 186 households, of which 25 have been abandoned, and this
tendency is continuing). There is a possibility to develop hang-gliding in this village, which would
improve the welfare situation of the community. Moreover, this sport does not have a serious
impact on the environment.
The forests are used primarily for filling gaps in family budgets, which seem to never end –
as soon as one is filled, another one appears. For example, forest income is very important for large
families. During the collection season, a family earns enough on berries and mushrooms to buy
what is needed for school (clothes, shoes, and books, stationary).
Villagers collect mushrooms and berries for the following reasons: in Ukraine there is free
access to non-timber forest products – almost all forests are owned by the state and mushrooms
and berries can be collected (on protected areas collecting is allowed in certain places). A forest
ticket must be obtained in order to collect NTFP for sale (commercial use). Forest products are in
demand and they may be sold at the market or acquired by procurement centres in villages. In
Ukraine, a lot of mushrooms and berries are traditionally consumed and they are an important
source of seasonal income.
Forest products (firewood, berries, mushrooms), agricultural products and animal products are vital
products for local populations.
Firewood – for heating and cooking, it is a vital resource; berries – for own consumption and sale;
mushrooms – for own consumption and sale. Both mushrooms and berries are a very important
seasonal source of income. Agricultural and livestock products – for own consumption and sale. For
some households (especially in Region 1) they are the main source of cash (if nobody in the
household receives pensions or is employed, their main income comes from agriculture).
In the two regions where there is no gas supply, the use of firewood will remain stable. In
the third region, the amount of used firewood will increase, because the price of gas is constantly
growing.
Dependence on mushrooms and berries is also stable; even if the villagers become richer,
they will not refuse this share of income in their total income. Mushrooms and berries are a
traditional food staple and also a commodity that is always in demand at the market. Forest income
in the annual income is smaller than agricultural income, but by the time spent, the former is a quick
income. People receive more income from other sources, but they invest much more time and effort
into, for example, agriculture. The amount of blueberries may change in Transcarpathia (Region 2)
because of climate change, which will, in turn, lead to a loss of this part of income. There is a high
probability that in this case the villagers will collect blueberries in other regions.
The amount of blueberries may also decrease in Polissia (Region 3), due to damaging to
forest ecosystem intensive collecting methods. Cranberry crops may also decrease, because it
grows on marshes (if the climate becomes drier), however in the studied villages the share of
gathered cranberries was not large.
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6. References
Adamovskyy O., Soloviy I. Ukrainian Forest Policy and Forestry: What are the drivers of change?
“Changing Forestry & Forest Economics & Policy”. Southern Forest Economics Workers Annual
Meeting. Auburn, AL, USA. March 10-12, 2013
Bocharnikov, Vladimir, Andrey Laletin , Per Angelstam , Ilya Domashov , Marine Elbakidze , Olesya
Kaspruk , Hovik Sayadyan , Igor Solovyi ,Emil Shukurov , and Tengiz UrushadzeJ, Russia, Ukraine,
the Caucasus, and Central Asia. In; Traditional Forest-Related Knowledge: Sustaining
Communities, Ecosystems and Biocultural Diversity, A. Parrotta and R.L. Trosper (eds.) World
Forests 12, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. (outside the USA) 2012: 251-270
Cesaro, L., Linddal, M. & Pettenella, D. 1995. The economic role of non-wood forest products and
services in rural development. MEDIT , 6(2): 28-34.
Soloviy I. P.,. Cubbage F. W. 2007. Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution
challenges. Forest Policy and Economics 10: 60–69
The photos on the cover page: by Tetiana Zhyla, Ukrainian Carpathians
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