Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Power
Big Picture

 1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to
1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and
Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous
change.
 States are struggling with political questions, rapid
economic change, growing secularism, and
nationalism.
 Continuing to question what had once been basic
assumptions about life
Political

 Absolutism
 Enlightenment redefines government’s role
Economic

 Industrialization creates a new standard for econ
“leader” nations
Popularity of Scientific
Revolution/Enlightenment

 Scientific knowledge spreads
 Emphasis on rationalism
Population Change

 Big pop. Spike in 16c
Chapter 8: Consolidation of
Political Power
What is Happening?

 centralized states.
 constant competition
 Church has lost power
Two Models: Absolutism and
Constitutionalism
Absolutism: Where?

 Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no limits
to power
 Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Characteristics
Philosophy of

 The King IS the
country, not
subordinate to nobles
or an assembly.
 The king
appoints/controls the
bureaucracy. Large
standing army.
 Totalitarian
 Jean Bodin/Thomas
Hobbes wrote during
civil wars in Fr and
Eng- both believed the
state (king) needed to
be strong to protect the
people from themselves
 Bishop Bossuet- “divine
right of kings”
Decline of Spain

 Inquisition
 Trade fell 60%
 Eng and Dutch
 Taxes very high for peasants
 “price revolution”
Economic Difficulties

 In Book
Political and Military
Decline

 Defeat of Spanish Armada
 lost Netherlands
 Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict from
30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands)
Revolt and Secession

 Portugal - independent 1668
 rebellions in Spanish holdings
Absolutism in France
Henry IV
Louis XIII

 Bourbon dynasty
 Navarre
 Weakened nobility by not
allowing feudal nobility
(nobility of sword) to
hold bureaucratic
positions- created new
noble titles (nobility of
robe) for those- therefore
those nobles loyal to king
 R. 1610-1643
 Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu

 Rebuilt royal treasury
 created intendant
system for collecting
revenue
 A politique (like Henry
IV)
 Began to push down
Huguenots
 taking their rights to
fortify towns and have
independent armies
Duke of Sully
Intendant System

 Defined Mercantilismuse colonies to create
favorable balance of trade
(use colonies for raw
materials/markets- don’t
allow them an ind. Econ.)
 Reformed tax systemencouraged gov’t to
improve transportation
system to improve trade
 Civil servants (not
noble- bourgeoisie)
who report directly to
king. Created greater
efficiency in gov’tmore centralized
control
 In Book
The Fronde

Cardinal Mazarin

 Used army against population
 made him (and king) unpopular
The Absolute Monarchy of
Louis XIV

 Golden age of France
 French Culture dominated Europe
 France had the largest population in Europe
 big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille- head tax)

Divine Right

 In book
Building a Centralized
Bureaucracy

 Continued and expanded intendant system- applied
it to regional/local gov’t.
 Blocked power of noble assemblies (parlementswhich had been created in Fronde) by refusing to
allow them to meet- never called Estates General
Corvee

 Forced labor for king
 work 1 month of the year on royal projects.
 peasants conscripted into the royal army
Versailles

 Often called a “theater state” of formalized ritual.
Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so
entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they
had lost their power

Mercantilism

 Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister
 Mercantilism
Bullionism

 Goal of country is as much gold/silver as possible.
 Originated French trading companies (French East
and West India Co) to make $$ and a French
Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad.
Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream
Weaknesses

 Created poor peasant conditions- and high taxes
 Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no navy
 Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for new
world
Court Culture at
Versailles

 60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on building
and maintaining Versailles


French Classicism

 A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of order
and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness
and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and
restrained at same time)
 Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of
Versailles
 Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste
Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did
the first French Operas

Revocation of Edict of Nantes
Edict of Fontainebleau
Jansenists
 200,000 Huguenots left
France French middle classes
declined
 Catholics who either
sympathized with or
had some Calvinist
ideas
Louis XIV’s Wars

 This was a professional army
Balance of Power
System

 Alliances shifting
 Start of 2nd 100 years of
Conflict between Eng
and Fr
War of Devolution 1667-1668

 Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French
got to keep towns on border of Spanish
Netherlands
Dutch War 1672-78

 French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance
 Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country.
Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side
 Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy
Nine Years War (War of League of
Augsburg) 1688-1697

 France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty
 Ended in tie
War of Spanish Succession
1701-1714

 Philip of Anjou, French, became ruler of Spain
 Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France (Grand
Alliance)
 Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since Peace of
Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither
he nor successors can ever claim throne of France.
Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well
as Gibraltar and Majorca.

Results of Wars

 Destroyed the French
economy
 France is bankrupt
 20% of French population
injured/killed in battle- or
starved
Absolutism in Central and
Eastern Europe

 Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central and
Eastern Europe
 All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia most
centralized in terms of royal power
Different from France

 powerful nobles, and
serf population
 Austria all that’s left of
Hapsburgs
 Prussia growing
 Russia growing
 French middle class
 nobility decreased
power
 E. E.-little centralization
 multi-ethnic
 multi-religious
 Not Prussia
 warfare pretty constant
Serfdom





Revival in East
Majority of peasant population
Econ stays agricultural
few large towns/cities to promote new ideas
Consolidation of Austria

 Held together by Hapsburg
 Lots of land
 Not a lot of power

Leopold I 1658-1705

 Catholic
 Schoenbrunn
 Siege of Vienna 1683.

Charles VI 1711-1740

 “Pragmatic Sanction” asking
rulers of Europe to respect his
heir, and saying Hapsburg
possession could never again
be divided
Rise of Brandenburg
Prussia

 Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate areas (2
of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come
to be dominated by Prussia

Frederick WilliamThe Great Elector 1640-1688

 Taxes
 created a professional army
 Calvinist
 religious tolerance
 Involved with
Sweden/Poland over
control of northern
territory in Europe
 Prussian militarismheavy taxes to pay for
strong military
Junkers

 Prussian nobility
 Dominate officer corps of new military
 trade/industry
Frederick I 1688-1713

 1st “king” of Prussia.
 Very popular
Frederick William I
1713-1740

 Thrifty
 Army
 “Sparta of the North”
 army with a state.
 80% of gov’t revenue
went to military
 deterrence to avoid actual
war.
 Very efficient
bureaucracy- could come
from any class, rise based
on merit
Frederick the Great
1740-1786
 Silesia- which doubled 
Prussia’s population
 “Enlightened Despot”
Russia: Emergence of an
Absolutist State

 Outside of “normal” European sphere
 seen as “backwards” and odd
 Europe feared the size, but always looked down on
Russia.

Expansion of Russia
before 1650

 Princes of Moscow became leading Russian noblesMongols use them as their tax collectors
 As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead
Russia
Ivan III 1442-1505

 “Tsar” of Russia
 Acquired land through war and marriage
 Cossack class of free peasants by giving them freedom and
land to settle in new
 Ivan the Great
Ivan IV 1533-1584

 Russia was feudal- Boyars
were Russian nobility- much
more traditional style- with
military obligations etc…
 Ivan sought to control nobles
by creating a new aristocracy
Oprichniki- and killing
boyars.
 Killed son’s wife- and
son/heir- Ivan the Terrible

Boyars resented newly created royal
power. Ivan came to throne @ 3- they
rebelled and threatened his life many
times (killed mom)

Created 1st version of Russia’s secret
police for reign of terror.
Gained territory in black sea (taking
land from Poland- a Russian theme)
Increased serfdom to keep peasants
tied to noble lands- also bound
merchants to particular townslimited capitalism



Time of Troubles

 1584- 1600ish
 Ivan died w/o an heir- so
competition, quasi war broke
out between boyar families for
who would control throne
Romanov
Dynasty
 Michael Romanov elected
Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs
favored keeping power in
hands of boyars in return
for their support)
 Expanded Russia to East
 1689 Russia is largest
country in World- 3x the
size of Europe- most of
Empire not IN Europe
Peter the Great 1682-1724

 Tsar primarily
responsible for
transforming Europe
into a western power.
Understood that
changes were
happening in Europewanted to get on board
 Not all boyars/peasants
liked the idea of
change- he didn’t care
 Peter was a giant- literallynearly 7 ft tall, could bend a
horseshoe barehanded.
 Russia is Feudal- Tsars
technically “own” all the landthere are no representative
political bodies.
 Old Believers: people who
resisted (severely persecuted)
 Big focus on creating a modern
military (75% of budget) each
village had to send a certain # of
troops for a 25 year enlistment.
St Petersburg

 Wanted a warm water port
for navy and trade. Gained
access to Baltic Sea (through
Great Northern War against
Poland/Denmark)
 Built a new capital as
showplace of modernizationhis “window on the west”
 Copied Amsterdam (soggy
territory) built Winter Palace
to rival Versailles
 Created a cosmopolitan city
by inviting the people he
needed (artists, musicians,
philosophers) to live there

Program for
Westernization

 As a young man, Peter travelled
(incognito) to Europe to observe
and study other countries.
 Imported western technicians
and artisans to bring new
industries (like shipbuilding) to
Russia.
 State controlled industry- not
really capitalistic (Tsar gave
monopolies) but had huge
resources- but end of reign
Russia out produced Eng in
iron
Military

 Built army by drafting
peasants- created soldiers by
offering them an alternative to
serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army
200,000.
 Introduced cannons and
firearms to Russian combatmodern military technology
 Built roads and bridges to
transport army- and a navy
from scratch (which decline
after he died)
Social

 Peter required adoption of
European cultural attitudes- styles
of dress, cut the beards (by force
if necessary) Women required to
appear at court society
 Introduced French language to his court- required all nobles
to learn it and speak it exclusively.
 Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret police to
enforce
Bureaucratic

 Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency in tax
collection and industrial production. Set education
standards for bureaucrats.
 Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on
merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated
many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)
Results

 Significant conflict of
Slavic culture vs.
westernization. Peter
imitated selectivelynot interested in
business or capitalism
 Brought Russia into
Europe- but not really
mainstream yet.
Alternatives to Absolutism
Constitutionalism: what is it?

 The government (king) is
limited by law- the law
itself is the supreme power
in the country.
 Implies a balance between
power of gov’t and rights of
citizens
 Used in Sweden, Poland,
England, and the
Netherlands
 Opportunities for other
voices/powers will allow
capitalistic growth- allowing
econ to grow particularly
strong in Netherlands and
England
Sweden

 King Gustavas
Adolphus (16111632) got Sweden
involved in
European affairs
through 30 years
war. Sweden
dominated Baltic
region (defeating
Russia and
Poland- until
Peter...)
 Riksdag: assembly
of nobles, clergy,
townspeople which
had highest
legislative authority.
Shared power with
king
 Sweden began some
Atlantic
colonizing/trade
(Delaware) then
pulled back
Charles XII 1697-1718

 Defeated by Peter the Great
in Baltic. Nobles took
advantage of that defeat
(and king died in battle) to
force Queen Ulrika to accept
a constitution which gave
nobles significant power.
 Riksdag restructured to be
more like Parliament
(though with nobles in
charge, not gentry)
Poland Lithuania

 In 16c was a Commonwealth
bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria,
and Ottoman Empire (included
Belarus and Ukraine)
 Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by treaty of
Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by noblesmade country a “republic of nobles”
 For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in
Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia
and Prussia
The Netherlands

 A small country- but the Dutch ideas
attitudes played a significant role in
shaping the modern world view.
 Recognized as independent in the treaty of
Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable
autonomy
 Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive
 Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp Netherlands) as
banking/commercial center of Netherlands
Golden Age

 Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the world to
trade (not conquer) Carrying Trade- served as
shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee
and made a profit.
 Center of scientific, literary, and artistic
achievements.
 Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisiewhose wealth limited power of king

Stadholders

 Netherlands did not have
ancient aristocratic familiesthey had oligarchies of
merchants, financiers and
traders, Burghers- town
officials. “Regents” elected
provincial “stadholder”executive officer. House of
Orange unofficial leader of
stadholders (William the
Silent)
 In times of crisis (war)
power of all 7 powers could
be given to one stadholdermaking him effective king.
Problems with England
  Had to rely on
 During English Civil
War Cromwell’s
parliament passed
Navigation actscolonies cannot trade
with anyone but Eng.
 Seemed to target
Dutch carrying trade
 So Dutch begin to
fight England
(sometimes- also allies
against Fr)
commerce b/c they
have so few natural
resources. Not big
enough to create
large colonies- but
had largest fleet in
Euro and
Significant fishing
trade.
 Dutch East/West
India Co.
 Often preferred by
native populationsseen as having less
of an agenda
William II of Orange
  Heavily involved in
 War of League of
Augsburg made him
permanent head
stadholder. In 1688 he
became King of England
(through his wife Marythey were co-rulers)
brought Eng. More into
affairs of continent
 Used balance of power
to contain Fr. Ambition
wars against Louis
XIV- they fight all in
(flooding countryside
etc…) It was expensive
– even when they were
winning- they use up a
lot of energy, never
again quite as large a
force in Euro politics
Constitutionalism in England

 Began with Magna
Carta. Kings willing
to have a legislature,
particularly if they
could use it to
legitimize their own
ideas.
 Really won POWER
in English Civil Warthey deposed (and
beheaded) Charles I,
reinstated Charles II
 Capitalism played a
significant role in
constitutionalismcreated social
mobility. England had
a larger middle class
than anywhere in
Europe (except
Netherlands- also
constitutional)
Beginnings
 One Parliament for the
whole country (unlike
France)
 House of Lords- all
hereditary nobles
 House of Commons ->
gentry

Gentry
 Wealthy landowners
w/o significant noble
title (knight at best)
Many had made
fortunes in commerce,
then retired.
 Paid taxes (as did
nobles) less stigma on
making $$ than in
other parts of Euro
Problems with Stuarts (not on
outline- add to side)

 Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies (spent too
much time in France!)
 Real issue of war- can king govern without consent
of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do)
 Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle
this question before war began- said only parliament
can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of
law (Habeas Corpus)
The Protectorate/Interregnum
1653-1658

 When Charles I executed
in 1649 parliament
declared martial law- then
a Commonwealth.
(Parliament technically in
charge- Cromwell really
ruling as a military
dictatorship- Lord
Protector)
 England at its most
absolutist during this
period- just Puritan
absolutism. Censored
press, closed theaters &
entertainments. Crushed
Ireland (feared royalist
stronghold)
 Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non
puritans removed from
gov’t.
 Act of Settlement- 2/3 of
land in Ireland taken from
Irish and given to English
Landlords
The Restoration Charles II
1660-1685
 England got tired of

Cromwell and Puritanism.
When he died parliament
decided to “restore” Charles
II to his father’s throne.
 Charles always careful not
to provoke parliamentavoided extremes. Kept a
permanent council of 5 men
who were his advisors as
well as members of
Parliament- kept
communication goingCabinet
 Charles had an affable
personality. Did not punish
parliament or country for
war/father’s death- seemed
just as anxious as they were
for a good time. Known as
Political Parties

 Tension between religious factions remains very
strong in Euro during 17c. Stuarts nominally
protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French)
 Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II
(openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist,
favored Business and Econ progress
 Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy.
Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.
Religious Issues: Test Act
1673

 Charles II suspended laws against Catholics and
Protestant dissenters.
 Parliament responded by passing a law which said
you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican
Communion) to hold gov’t office or military
officership
Glorious Revolution 1688

 Final chapter in English struggle over sovereignty.
 England doesn’t have a single document as it’s
constitution- significant acts join together as body of
law- lots of them created here
James II

 Charles II’s younger
bro- became king in
1685 at 55 years old.
Pro Catholic and
Absolutist- and proud
of it baby
 Appointed Catholics
to gov’t positions in
defiance of lawpassed Act of
Indulgence: freedom
of worship for RC
 At first, parliament (and
people) figure they will
just hold on- he’s not a
young guy, and his heirs
(2 grown daughters) are
both protestant
 But he married again (20
year old daughter of Louis
xiv) in 1686, she gave birth
to a son 1688. Faced with a
Catholic heir, and
absolutist Fr. Regentparliament decided they
have to act
William and Mary

 Complete the journey towards constitutionalism
 Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter Mary
(married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch
army to force James out if necessary) James leaves
(he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne)
William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers
 “Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed
Bill of Right
Toleration Act

 1688 W & M agree not
to keep standing
army w/o
parliament’s consent.
Parliament will meet
every year and have
elections every 3
years, have sole
power to tax.
 Says king CANNOT
be RC
 Ensures no Cruel and
Unusual punishment
and trial by Jury
 1689 All forms of
protestants have
freedom of worship
and may hold office
 Did not offer those
same rights to
Catholics or Jews, but
did not punish them
for their faith either.
Act of Settlement
Act of Union

 1701 If W & M, or
Anne (other sister) die
w/o heir (which they
did)- throne does not
revert to heirs of
James II, but to
grandchildren of
James I- the Electors
of Hanover. George I
of Hanoverian
dynasty will become
king in 1714
 1707 United England
and Scotland
(reconquered by
Charles II w/o much
fuss) into Great
Britain. Union was to
prevent Stuarts from
using Scotland as
launching spot for
invasion of England
(which is what they
were doing in Ireland)
Scots fine- wanted
access to Eng’s trade
empire
NOT Democracy

 Bloodless revolutionbut not “by the
people” Parliament
only represented the
top of society- voting
rights were strictly
limited to large
landowners
 Parliament represents
the upper 10% at this
point- but that is still
10% more than have a
voice in most of the
countries of Europe
 John Locke: wrote to
defend the Glor. Revsaying that people
have the right to
overthrow a gov’t that
is not defending their
rights