1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Outline
The Historical Perspective
•
•
•
•
Early History
The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries
Stereotyping of Adolescents
A Positive View of Adolescence
Today’s Adolescents in the United States & Around the World
• Adolescents in the United States
• The Global Perspective
The Nature of Development
• Processes and Periods
• Developmental Transitions
• Developmental Issues
The Science of Adolescent Development
• Science and the Scientific Method
• Theories of Adolescent Development
• Research in Adolescent Development
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2
What do you think about
adolescence?
• Is it a difficulty or easy time of life?
• What are some of the good things
•
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that happened to you during your
adolescence?
Were there any bad?
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3
History of adolescence:
Some questions to think about
• Did past societies have what we call
•
•
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an adolescent period?
Why has adolescence become
known as such a terrible time?
Is adolescence really that bad?
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4
Historical Perspective
• Early History
In early Greece, the philosophers commented about the
nature of youth.
Plato (4th Century BCE)
Aristotle (4th Century BCE)
In the Middle Ages, children and adolescents were viewed
as miniature adults and were subject to harsh discipline.
In the 18th Century, the French philosopher Jean-Jacques
Rousseau offered a more enlightened view of adolescence.
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Historical Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
The 20th & 21st Centuries
•
•
•
•
G. Stanley Hall’s Storm-and-Stress View
Margaret Mead’s Sociocultural View
The Inventionist View
Further Changes in the 20th and 21st Centuries
– The women’s movement
– The dual family and career objectives
– Increased use of media and technology by adolescents
• Web, iPods, Cellphones, text messaging, YouTube & MySpace
– Increased diversity
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Historical Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
Stereotyping of Adolescents
A Stereotype is . . .
A generalization that reflects our impressions and
beliefs about a broad category of people.
All stereotypes carry an image of what the typical
member of a particular group is like.
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7
Historical Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
• Some Stereotypes of Adolescents:
• “They say they want a job, but when
they get one, they don’t want to work.”
• “They are all lazy.”
• “All they think about is sex.”
• “They are all into drugs.”
• “The problem with adolescents today is
that they all have it too easy.”
• “They are so self-centered.”
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8
Historical Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
Stereotyping of Adolescents
Joseph Adelson (1979)
• Coined the term adolescent generalization gap.
• Refers to generalizations that are based on
information about a limited, often highly visible
group of adolescents.
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9
Historical Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
A Positive View of Adolescence
•
The negative stereotyping of adolescents is overdrawn.
(Balsano & others, 2009; Lerner, Roeser, & Phelps, 2009).
Old Centuries and New Centuries
•
Psychologists are now calling for a focus on the positive side of
human experience and greater emphasis on hope, optimism,
positive individual traits, creativity, and positive group and civic
values, such as responsibility, nurturance, civility, and tolerance.
(Gestsdottir & Lerner, 2008).
Generational Perceptions and Misperceptions
•
Adults’ perceptions of adolescents emerge from a combination
of personal experience and media portrayals, neither of which
produces an objective picture of how typical adolescents develop.
(Feldman & Elliott, 1990).
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10
Today’s Adolescents in the United States
and Around the World
“Growing up has never been easy.”
•
The developmental tasks today’s adolescents face
are no different from those of adolescents 50 years
ago.
•
For a large majority of youth, adolescence is not a
time of rebellion, crisis, pathology, and deviance.
Rather it is a time of evaluation, decision making,
commitment, and finding a place in the world.
•
Socioeconomic, ethnic, cultural, gender, age, and
lifestyle differences influence the developmental
trajectory of every adolescent (Conger & Conger, 2008).
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11
Social Contexts
•
•
•
Contexts are the settings in which development
occurs.
Contexts are influenced by historical, economic,
social, and cultural factors.
Each adolescent’s development occurs against a
cultural backdrop of contexts that includes
family, peers, school, church, neighborhood,
community, region, and nation, each with its
cultural legacies
(Parke & others, 2008; Taylor & Whittaker, 2009).
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12
Today’s Adolescents
Projected Percentage Increase in
Adolescents Aged 10–19, 2025– 2100.
Fig. 1.1
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13
Today’s Adolescents
Actual and Projected Number of U.S.
Adolescents Aged 10–19, 2000–2100
Fig. 1.2
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14
Social Policy and Adolescents’
Development
Social policy
A national government’s course of
action designed to influence the welfare
of its citizens.
Currently, many researchers are attempting
to design studies whose results will lead to
wise and effective social policy decision
making (Eccles, Brown, & Templeton, 2008)
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15
The Global Perspective
Youth Around the World
• Two-thirds of Asian Indian adolescents accept their
parents’ choice of a marital partner for them.
(Verma & Saraswathi, 2002).
• In the Philippines, many female adolescents sacrifice
their own futures by migrating to the city to earn money
that they can send home to their families.
• Street youth in Kenya and other parts of the world learn
to survive under highly stressful circumstances. In
some cases abandoned by their parents, they may
engage in delinquency or prostitution to provide for
their economic needs.
• In the Middle East, many adolescents are not allowed to
interact with the other sex, even in school (Booth, 2002).
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16
The Global Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
Youth Around the World
 Rapid global change is altering the experience of
adolescence, presenting new opportunities and
challenges to young people’s health and well-being.
 Around the world, adolescents’ experiences may differ
depending on their gender, families, schools, and peers
(Brown & Larson, 2002; Larson & Wilson, 2004).
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17
The Global Perspective
(Continued from previous slide)
Brad Brown and Reed Larson (2002) summarized
some of these changes and traditions in the
world’s youth:
•
•
•
•
•
Health and well-being
Gender
Family
School
Peers
Adolescents’ lives are characterized by a
combination of change and tradition.
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18
The Nature of Development
Development:
The pattern of change that begins at
conception and continues through
the life span.
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19
Development Processes
Biological,
Cognitive, and
Socioemotional
Processes
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Biological
processes
Physical changes
within an
individual’s body.
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20
Development Processes
Biological,
Cognitive, and
Socioemotional
Processes
(Continued from previous slide)
Cognitive
processes
Changes in
thinking and
intelligence.
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21
Development Processes
Biological,
Cognitive, and
Socioemotional
Processes
(Continued from previous slide)
Socioemotional
processes
Changes in
relationships, emotions,
personality,
and social contexts.
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22
Processes and Periods
Developmental Changes Are a Result of Biological,
Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
Fig. 1.3
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23
Periods of Development
Childhood
•
•
•
•
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Prenatal Period
Infancy
Early Childhood
Middle and Late Childhood
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24
Periods of Development
(Continued from previous slide)
Adolescence
• Early Adolescence
• Late Adolescence
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25
Periods of Development
(Continued from previous slide)
Adulthood
• Early Adulthood
• Middle Adulthood
• Late Adulthood
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26
Periods of Development
Processes and Periods of Development
Fig. 1.4
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27
Developmental Transitions
Childhood to Adolescence
•
•
•
•
•
Growth spurt, hormonal changes, sexual maturation.
Increases in abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking.
Quest for independence.
Conflict with parents.
Increased desire to spend more time with peers.
• Conversations with friends become more intimate.
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28
Developmental Transitions
(Continued from previous slide)
Adolescence to Adulthood
• Approximately 18 to 25 years of age.
• Economic and personal temporariness.
• Experimentation and exploration.
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29
Issues/ Events from M/W/F Class
• Emotional control
• Loss of a Grandparent, Father,
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Mother, Aunt, and Sibling
Addiction
Identity
Teamwork
Curiosity
Change in thinking
Continued on next slide
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30
• Maturity
• Rebellion
• Altruism
• Change in Priorities
• Sexuality
• Divorce
• Bullying
• Relationships
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Delinquency
Lying
Role models
Anxiety
Leadership
Health
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31
• Problems discussed by Tuesday
evening class
1.Loss of parent 7. responsibility
2.Maturity
8. Gender role
3.Loss of a friend 9. Team sports
4.Identity
10. Injury
5.Work
11. loss of Grandparent
6.Independence 11. Teenage Sex
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32
• Problems discussed by Tuesday
Evening Class
1.Motherhood
7. Fitting in
2.Friendships
8. Divorce
3.Family
9. Abuse
4. Sexual identity
10. Growth
5.Confusion
11. Family Illness
6.Bullying
12. Loss of Cousin
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33
• Problems discussed by Tuesday
Evening class
1.Loss of classmate 7. Threats
2.Goals
8. loss of control
3.Loss of mother 9. Loss of a sibling
4.Parentification
5.Relationships
6.Body Image
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34
Emerging Adulthood-why is this
so important?
Key Features
• Identity exploration, especially in love and work.
• Instability.
• Feeling in-between.
• Self-focused.
• The age of possibilities, a time when individuals
have an opportunity to transform their lives.
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35
Health and Well-Being
Adolescents’ Self-Reported Well-Being from 18 Years of Age
Through 26 Years of Age
Fig. 1.5
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36
Health and Well-Being
(Continued from previous slide)
Adolescents’ Self-Reported Risk-Taking Decreases from 18
Years of Age Through 26 Years of Age
Fig. 1.6
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37
Becoming an Adult-what do you
think makes an adult?
Possible markers of adulthood:
• Economic independence.
• Self-responsibility.
• Independent decision making.
• Accepting responsibility for the consequences of
one’s actions.
• Deciding on one’s own beliefs and values.
• Establishing a relationship equal with parents.
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38
Becoming an Adult
Three Types of Assets That
Are Especially Important in
Making a Competent
Transition Through
Adolescence and Emerging
Adulthood
Fig. 1.7
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39
Becoming an Adult
(Continued from previous slide)
Resilience
Refers to adapting positively and achieving
successful outcomes in the face of
significant risks and adverse circumstances.
• Many of you describe incredible
resilience in your discussion of important
events in your adolescence.
• We often sell ourselves short until we
look back and analyze what happened
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40
Developmental Issues
• Nature vs. Nurture
• Continuity vs.
Discontinuity
• Early vs. Later
Experience
Fig. 1.8
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41
The Science of Adolescent
Development
“Science refines everyday thinking.”
— Albert Einstein
German-Born American Physicist,
20th Century
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42
Science and the Scientific Method
• Conceptualize a process or problem.
• Collect research information (data).
• Analyze data.
• Draw conclusions.
• Try to think of the strengths and
weaknesses of each theory
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43
Science and the Scientific Method
(Continued from previous slide)
Theory
An interrelated, coherent set of ideas
that helps to explain phenomena and
make predictions. When you look at the
theories remember to focus on what
they say about adolescence.
Hypothesis
Specific assertions and
predictions that can be tested.
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44
Psychoanalytic Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
Freud
Personality Structure
Id
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Ego
Superego
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45
Psychoanalytic Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
Freud
Defense Mechanisms
• Unconscious methods the ego uses to distort
reality and protect itself from anxiety.
• Examples: Repression and regression.
•
However, Peter Blos (1989), a British psychoanalyst,
and Anna Freud (1966), Sigmund Freud’s daughter,
believed that defense mechanisms provide
considerable insight into adolescent development.
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46
Psychoanalytic Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
Revisions of Freud’s Theories
• Contemporary psychoanalytic theorists believe
that he overemphasized sexual instincts.
• They place more emphasis on cultural experiences
as determinants of an individual’s development.
• Unconscious thought remains a central theme, but
most contemporary psychoanalysts argue that
conscious thought plays a greater role than Freud
envisioned.
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47
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
• Contributions of psychoanalytic theories
include an emphasis on a developmental
framework, family relationships, and
unconscious aspects of the mind.
• Criticisms include a lack of scientific support,
too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings,
and an image of people that is too negative.
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48
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• According to Freud, our basic
personality is shaped in the first five
years of life
• According to Erikson, developmental
change occurs throughout the life
span.
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49
Psychosocial Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
Fig. 1.10
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50
Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Psychoanalytic theories stress the
importance of the unconscious.
• Cognitive theories emphasize conscious
thoughts.
• Three important cognitive theories are
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory,
Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory,
and information-processing theory.
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51
Cognitive Developmental Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
Piaget
Fig. 1.11
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52
Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
Vygotsky (1896–1934)
• Cognitive skills can be understood only
when they are developmentally analyzed
and interpreted.
• Cognitive skills are mediated by words,
language, and forms of discourse.
• Cognitive skills have their origins in social
relations.
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53
Information-Processing Theory
•
•
Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information,
monitor it, and strategize about it.
Robert Siegler (2006, 2009), a leading expert, states
that thinking is information processing. When
adolescents perceive, encode, represent, store, and
retrieve information, they are thinking.
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54
Evaluating Cognitive Theories
• Contributions of cognitive theories
include a positive view of development
and an emphasis on the active
construction of understanding.
• Criticisms include skepticism about the
pureness of Piaget’s stages and too little
attention to individual variations.
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55
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory
Behaviorism
• Essentially holds that we can study
scientifically only what we directly
observe and measure.
• Out of the behavioral tradition grew the
belief that development is observable
behavior that can be learned through
experience with the environment
(Klein, 2009).
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56
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
• The scientific study of observable
behavior responses and their
environmental determinants.
• Behavior is learned and often changes
according to environmental experience.
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57
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Fig. 1.12
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58
Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive
Theories
• Emphasis on scientific research and
environmental determinants of
behavior.
• Criticisms include too little emphasis
on cognition in Skinner’s views and
giving inadequate attention to
developmental changes.
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59
Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner (1917 – 2005)
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner (2004; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006)
has added biological influences to his theory
and describes the newer version as a
bioecological theory
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60
Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development
Fig. 1.13
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61
Evaluating Ecological Theory
(Continued from previous slide)
• Contributions of the theory include:
• A systematic examination of macro and micro
dimensions of environmental systems.
• Attention to connections between environmental
systems.
• Criticisms include:
• Giving inadequate attention to biological factors.
• Too little emphasis on cognitive factors.
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62
Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
• Not following any one theoretical
approach, but rather selecting from
each theory whatever is considered the
best in it.
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63
Research in Adolescent Development
Methods for Collecting Data
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Observation
Surveys and Interviews
Standardized Tests
Experience Sampling Method (ESM)
Physiological Measures
Case Study
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64
Research in Adolescent Development
Self-Reported Extremes of Emotion by Adolescents, Mothers, and Fathers
Using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM)
Fig. 1.14
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65
Research in Adolescent Development
The Flexibility and Resilience of the Developing Brain
Plasticity in the Brain’s Hemispheres
Fig. 1.15
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66
Research Design
• There are three main types of research
design:
– Descriptive
– Correlational
– Experimental
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67
Research Design
• Descriptive research
– Aims to observe and record behavior.
• For example, a researcher might observe the
extent to which adolescents are altruistic or
aggressive toward each other.
– Descriptive research cannot prove what
causes some phenomenon
– Descriptive research can reveal important
information about people’s behavior.
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68
Correlational Research
•
•
•
•
•
Goes beyond describing phenomena.
Helps us predict how people will behave.
Describes the strength of the relationship between
two or more events or characteristics.
Correlation Coefficient
• +1.00 to -1.00
• Negative vs. Positive
• Size of the number
Correlation does not imply causation.
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69
Correlational Research
(Continued from previous slide)
Possible Interpretations of Correlational Data
Fig. 1.16
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70
Experimental Research
•
•
•
•
•
•
To study causality, researchers turn to experimental
research.
The cause is the factor that was manipulated.
The effect is the behavior that changed because of the
manipulation.
All experiments involve at least one independent
variable and one dependent variable.
The independent variable is the factor that is
manipulated.
The dependent variable is the factor that is measured.
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71
Random Assignment/Experimental Design
Fig. 1.17
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72
Time Span of Research
Cross-sectional research
• Research that studies people all at one
time.
Longitudinal research
• Research that studies the same people
over a period of time, usually several
years or more.
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73
Conducting Ethical Research
•
•
•
May affect you personally if you ever serve as a
participant in a study.
Proposed research at colleges and universities
must pass the scrutiny of a research ethics
committee before the research can be initiated.
APA’s guidelines address four important
issues:
1. Informed consent
2. Confidentiality
3. Debriefing
4. Deception
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74
Minimizing Bias
• Gender Bias
• Culture and Ethnic Bias
• Ethnic Gloss
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75
Being a Wise Consumer of Information
•
•
•
•
•
Be cautious of what is reported in the popular media.
Recognize the tendency to over generalize a small or
clinical sample.
Be aware that a single study usually is not the
defining word.
Remember that causal conclusions cannot be drawn
from correlational studies.
Always consider the source of the information and
evaluate its credibility.
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76
Adolescent Development Research
Journals
• Journal of Research on Adolescence
• Journal of Early Adolescence
• Journal of Youth and Adolescence
• Adolescence
• Child Development
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77
Careers in Adolescent Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
College/University Professor
Researcher
Secondary School Teacher
Exceptional Children (Special Education Teacher)
Family and Consumer Science Educator
Educational Psychologist
School Psychologist
Clinical Psychologist
Psychiatrist
Psychiatric Nurse
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78
Careers in Adolescent Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Counseling Psychologist
School Counselor
Career Counselor
Social Worker
Drug Counselor
Health Psychologist
Adolescent Medicine Specialist
Marriage and Family Therapist
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79
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
Children’s Defense Fund
•
The Search Institute
www.childrensdefense.org/
The Children’s Defense Fund, headed by Marian Wright
Edelman, exists to provide a strong and effective voice for
children and adolescents who cannot vote, lobby, or speak for
themselves.
www.search-institute.org
The Search Institute has available a large number of resources
for improving the lives of adolescents. The brochures and
books available address school improvement, adolescent
literacy, parent education, program planning, and adolescent
health and include resource lists. A free quarterly newsletter is
available.
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80
E-LEARNING TOOLS
To help you master the material in this
chapter, visit the Online Learning Center
for Adolescence, 13th Edition at:
http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka13e
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81
What do you see when you look at
these pictures?
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82
What do you see in these photos?
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83
What do you see in these
pictures?
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