Chapter 29
The Making of
Industrial Society
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Overview: The Industrial Revolution
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Energy: coal and steam replace wind, water,
human and animal labor
Organization: factories over cottage industries
Rural agriculture declines, urban manufacturing
increases
Transportation: trains, automobiles replace
animals, watercraft
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Overview: Creation of New Classes
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The industrial middle class and the urban
proletariat
Inspiration for new political systems, especially
Marxism
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Foundation
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Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain
 Shift from wood to coal in eighteenth century;
deforestation caused wood shortages
British advantage
 Abundant, accessible coal reserves
 River and canal system
 Exports to imperial colonies especially machine textiles
Overseas colonies provided raw materials
 Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
 Colonies also became markets for British manufactured
goods
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Cotton-Producing Technology
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Flying shuttle (1733), John Kay
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The “mule” (1779), Samuel Compton
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Sped up weaving output; stimulated demand for thread
Could produce 100 times more thread than a manual
wheel
Power loom (1785), Edmund Cartwright
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Supplanted hand weavers in cotton industry by 1820s
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Steam Power
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James Watt's steam engine, 1765
 Burned coal, which drove a piston, which turned a
wheel
 Widespread use by 1800 meant increased
productivity, cheaper prices
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Iron and Steel
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Iron and Steel also important industries, with
continual refinement
 Coke (purified coal) replaced charcoal as principal
fuel
 Bessemer converter (1856) made cheaper, stronger
steel
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Transportation
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Transportation improved with steam engines and
improved steel
 Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the
mid-nineteenth century
 Railroads (1815) and steamships lowered
transportation costs and created dense
transportation networks
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The Factory System
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The factory gradually replaced the cottage system
 Machines too large, expensive for home use (cottage
system)
 Large buildings could house specialized laborers
 Urbanization guarantees supply of cheap unskilled
labor
 Factory system required division of labor; each
worker performed a single task
 Required a high degree of coordination, work
discipline, and close supervision
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Working Conditions
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Six days a week, fourteen hours a day
Immediate supervision, punishments
“Luddite” protest against machines 1811-1816
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Masked Luddites destroy machinery, enjoyed popular
support
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Spread of Industrialization
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Western Europe
 Spread to Germany, Belgium, France
 French revolution and Napoleonic wars set stage
for industrialization
 After German unification, Bismarck sponsored
heavy industry, arms, shipping
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Industrial Europe ca. 1850
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Industrialization in North America
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Began in 1820s in New England with cotton
textile industry
By 1900, U.S. an economic powerhouse
Railroad construction stimulates industry;
integrated various regions of United States
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Mass Production
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Eli Whitney (U.S., 1765-1825) invents cotton gin
(1793), also technique of using machine tools to
make interchangeable parts for firearms
Henry Ford, 1913, develops assembly line
approach
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Complete automobile chassis every 93 minutes
Previously: 728 minutes
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Monopolies, Trusts, and Cartels
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Large corporations form blocs to drive out
competition, keep prices high
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John D. Rockefeller controls almost all oil drilling,
processing, refining, marketing in U.S.
German firm IG Farben controls 90% of chemical
production
Governments often slow to control monopolies
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Industrial Demographics
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Population growth
 Industrialization raised material standards of living
 Populations of Europe and America rose sharply from
1700 to 1900
 Better diets and improved sanitation reduced death rate
of adults and children
Demographic transition: population change typical of
industrialized countries
 Pattern of declining birthrate in response to declining
mortality
 Improved disease control- Smallpox vaccine (1797)
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Population Growth (millions)
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Contraception
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Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) predicts
overpopulation crisis, advocates “moral restraint”
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The Urban Environment
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Industrialization drew migrants from
countryside to urban centers
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By 1900, 50 percent of population of industrialized
countries lived in towns
Urban problems: shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate
water supply
City centers become overcrowded, unsanitary
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Transcontinental Migrations
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Nineteenth to early twentieth century, rapid
population growth drives Europeans to Americas
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50 million cross Atlantic
Britons to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid potato
famines of 1840s, Jews to abandon tsarist persecution
United States is favored destination
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New Social Classes
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New social classes created by industrialization
 Captains of industry: a new aristocracy of wealth
 Middle class: managers, accountants, other
professionals
 Working class: unskilled, poorly paid, vulnerable
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Genders at Home and Work
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Men gained increased stature and responsibility in industrial
age
 Middle- and upper-class men were sole providers
 Valued self-improvement, discipline, and work ethic
Opportunities for women narrowed by industrialization
 Working women could not bring children to work in mines
or factories
 Middle-class women expected to care for home and children
 Double burden: women expected to maintain home as well
as work in industry
 Related to child labor: lack of day care facilities
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Child Labor
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Many children forced to work in industry to
contribute to family support
 1840s, Parliament began to regulate child labor
 1881, primary education became mandatory in
England
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The Socialist Challenge
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Socialism first used in context of utopian
socialists Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and Robert
Owen (1771-1858)
Opposed competition of market system
Attempted to create small model communities
Inspirational for larger social units
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Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich
Engels (1820-1895)
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Marx (1818-1883) and Engels (1820-1895), leading
nineteenth-century socialists
 Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic,
unproductive
 Critique of industrial capitalism
(a) Unrestrained competition led to ruthless
exploitation of working class
(b) State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist
ruling class
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Social Reform and Trade Unions
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Socialism had major impact on nineteenthcentury reformers
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Addressed issues of medical insurance, unemployment
compensation, retirement benefits
Trade unions form for collective bargaining
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Strikes to address workers’ concerns
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Global Effects
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Global division of labor
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Rural societies that produce raw materials
Urban societies that produce manufactured goods
Uneven economic development
Developing export dependencies of Latin
America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and southeast
Asia
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Low wages, small domestic markets
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