Chapter 8: Language
and Thought
The Cognitive Revolution
Cognition: Mental processes involved in acquiring
knowledge.
19th Century focus on the mind
Introspection
Behaviorist focus on overt responses
arguments regarding incomplete picture of human
functioning
Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conference
Simon and Newell – problem solving
Chomsky – new model of language
Miller – memory (7 +/-2)
Language: Turning Thoughts
into Words
Properties of Language
Symbolic: Use sounds/words to represent objects
Semantic: Meaning
Generative: Limited number of symbols can be
combined & generate infinite combinations
Structured: Rules that govern how you can
arrange sentences
The Hierarchical Structure of
Language
• Phonemes = smallest speech units
– 100 possible, English – about 40
• Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning
– 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes
• Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations
– Objects and actions to which words refer
• Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words
into sentences
– Different rules for different languages
Language Development: Milestones
• Initial vocalizations similar across languages
– Crying, cooing, babbling
• 6 months – babbling sounds begin to
resemble surrounding language
• 1 year – first word
– similar cross-culturally – words for parents
– receptive vs. expressive language
Overview of Typical Language
Development
Language Development:
Milestones Continued
• 18-24 months – vocabulary spurt, receptive
vocab (understanding) is greater then productive
vocab (spoken).
– Fast Mapping: map a word onto an understanding
concept after 1 exposure
– Overextension: incorrectly use words to describe
similar objects (ball: anything around)
– Underextension: incorrectly use words to narrower set
of objects (doll: their favorite doll)
Language Development:
Milestones Continued
• End of second year – combine words
– Telegraphic Speech: omitting words that are less
critical (Give Doll)
– Mean Length of Utterance (MLU): average length of
spoken statements (morphemes)
• End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past
tense
– Overregularization: grammar rules are incorrectly use
(I goed to sleep)
• 4-5 years old- formal training in writing
– Metalinguistic Awareness: to reflect on the use of
language (coming up with jokes)
Bilingualism:
Learning More Than One Language
• Research findings:
– Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined
vocabularies average
– Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on
cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective
attention, and metalinguistic awareness
– Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing
speed
– 2nd languages more easily acquired early in life
– Acculturation: how much a person is socially &
psychologically integrated into a new culture facilitates
acquisition
Age and second language learning
Can Animals Develop Language?
• Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees
– Vocal apparatus issue
– American Sign Language
• Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)
– Chimpanzee - Washoe
– 160 word vocabulary
• Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
– Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi
– Symbols
– Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests
Theories of Language Acquisition
• Behaviorist
– Skinner
• learning of specific verbal responses
• Nativist
– Chomsky
• learning the rules of language
• Language Acquisition Device (LAD): innate mechanism that
facilitates learning of language (biologically)
• Interactionist
– Cognitive, social communication, and biological theories
Interactionist theories of language
acquisition
Thinking
Thinking refers to mental activities used to reason
or reflect
• Mental Representations: representations of
knowledge & thought. Two type:
1) Analogical: the representation has some of the qualities
of the thing it represents
2) Symbolic: the representation has none of the qualities of
the thing it represents
Thinking
• Visual Imagery: representations of sensory
experience that occur in the brain w/out the
presence of sensory input.
• Concept Formation: mental classification of
objects & events based on common features
1) Concept: a class or category w/ individuals or subtypes (birds)
2) Prototype: the best example of a concept (sparrow)
•
Problem Solving: Types of Problems
• Greeno (1978) – three basic classes
• Problems of inducing structure
– Series completion and analogy problems
• Problems of arrangement
– String problem and Anagrams
• Often solved through insight
• Problems of transformation
– Hobbits and orcs problem
– Water jar problem
Six standard problems used in
studies of problem solving
The tower of Hanoi problem
Effective Problem Solving
• Well defined vs. ill defined problems
• Barriers to effective problem solving:
– Irrelevant Information
– Functional Fixedness: to see an item for only
its most common use
– Mental Set: when people use problem solving
strategies that have worked in the past
– Unnecessary Constraints
Approaches to Problem Solving
• Problem Space: the set of possible pathways to a
solution considered by the problem solver.
• Algorithms: method, step by step procedure in
searching for a solution
– Trial-&-Error: trying possible solutions & discarding
those that don’t work until you find a solution.
• Heuristics: “rule of thumb”
– Shortcuts
– No guaranteed solution
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Forming subgoals
Working backward
Searching for analogies
Changing the representation of a problem
Culture, Cognitive Style,
and Problem Solving
• Field dependence – relying on external
frames of reference
• Field independence – relying on internal
frames of reference
– Western cultures inspire field independence
– Cultural influence based in ecological demands
Decision Making: Evaluating Alternatives
& Making Choices
• Framing: the way a problem is posed affects the
perception of how
• Theory of Bounded Rationality: people use
simple strategies that focus on a few facts of available
option which leads to irrational decisions (Simon)
• Making Choices
– Additive strategies: list positives of two things
– Elimination by aspects
Application of the additive model to
choosing an apartment
Taking Chances
• Risky Decision Making: making choices
under uncertain conditions
– Expected Value: engage in activity only if we
except to win or gain something. (gambling)
– Subjective Utility: represents what an
outcome is personally worth to a person (having
insurance)
– Subjective Probability: personal estimates of
probabilities if actual probability is not available.
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
• Availability Heuristic: estimating the probability based on
instances that come to mind
• Representativeness Heuristic: estimates the probability
based on how similar it is to a typical prototype
• Tendency to Ignore Base Rates: pg 326
• Conjunction Fallacy: people estimate the odds of 2
uncertain events happening together are greater then
happening alone
• Alternative Outcomes Effect: beliefs about outcomes
change depending how the info is presented
The Conjunction Fallacy
Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning
About Decisions
• Reasoning: the determination of the conclusions that can
be drawn from examples or assertions
1) Inductive Reasoning: the construction of conclusions
from particular examples
2) Deductive Reasoning: the process of deciding
whether a conclusion can be drawn from the premises or facts
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The gambler’s fallacy
Overestimating the improbable
Confirmation bias and belief perseverance
The overconfidence effect