Chapter 8
Language and Thought
The Cognitive Revolution
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19th Century focus on the mind
– Introspection
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Behaviorist focus on overt responses
– arguments regarding incomplete picture of human
functioning
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Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conference
– Simon and Newell – problem solving
– Chomsky – new model of language
– Miller – memory
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Language: Turning Thoughts into
Words
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Properties of Language
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–
–
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Symbolic
Semantic
Generative
Structured
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The Hierarchical Structure of
Language

Phonemes = smallest speech units
– 100 possible, English – about 40-50
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Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning
– 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes
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Semantics = meaning of words and word
combinations
– Objects and actions to which words refer
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Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into
sentences
– Different rules for different languages
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Language Development: Milestones
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Initial vocalizations similar across languages
– Crying, cooing, babbling
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6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble
surrounding language
1 year – first word
– similar cross-culturally – words for parents
– receptive vs. expressive language
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2 years – two words
3 years – complete sentences
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Language Development: Milestones
Continued

18-24 months – vocabulary spurt
– fast mapping - children map a word onto an underlying
concept after only one exposure.
– Overextentions – all balls are footballs
– Underextensions – only their dog is a dog
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End of second year – combine words
– Telegraphic speech – “Want ball”, “Give cookie”
– Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) – measured in morphemes
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End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense
– Overregularization
• ex. ‘he goed home’
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Bilingualism: Learning More Than
One Language

Research findings:
– Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined
vocabularies average
– Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on
cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention,
and metalinguistic awareness
– Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed
– Second languages more easily acquired early in life
– Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition
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Language Development
Skinner: Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner believed that we can explain language
development with familiar learning principles such as
association, imitation, and reinforcement.
Language is learned.
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Language Development
Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky believes that children are
biologically prepared to learn words and use
grammar.
Our language acquisition capacity is like a
box– a “language acquisition device” (LAD)
in which grammar switches are thrown as
children experience their language.
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Language

Linguistic Determinism
 Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that
language determines the way we think
 The Hopi have no past tense for their
verbs. Therefore, a Hopi could not so
readily think about the past.
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Cognitive Theory

Cognitive abilities
make language
development possible
 Children are active
participants in
language learning
 Piaget believed
cognition precedes
language
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Theories of Language Acquisition

Interactionist - biology and experience both make
important contributions.
- Social communication - interpersonal communication has
functional value and emphasizes the social context in which
language evolves.
- Emergentist theories - neural circuits supporting language
are not prewired, but rather emerge gradually in response to
learning experiences via incremental changes in
connectionist networks.
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Critical Period Hypothesis
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Eric Lenneberg (1967)
States that there is a
sensitive (critical) period
for language
development when
learning a language is
easier
What happens if a
human misses that
period?
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Can Animals Develop Language?

Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees
– Vocal apparatus issue
– American Sign Language

Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)
– Chimpanzee - Washoe
– 160 word vocabulary

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
– Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi
– Symbols
– Receptive language – 72% of 660 requests
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Problem Solving: Types of Problems

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Greeno (1978) – three basic classes
Problems of inducing structure
– Series completion and analogy problems
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Problems of arrangement
– String problem and Anagrams
• Often solved through insight

Problems of transformation
– Hobbits and orcs problem
– Water jar problem
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Effective Problem Solving
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Well defined vs. ill defined problems
Barriers to effective problem solving:
–
–
–
–
Irrelevant Information
Functional Fixedness
Mental Set
Unnecessary Constraints
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Approaches to Problem Solving

Algorithms
– Systematic trial-and-error
– Guaranteed solution

Heuristics
– Shortcuts
– No guaranteed solution
•
•
•
•
Forming subgoals
Working backward
Searching for analogies
Changing the representation of a problem
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Decision Making: Evaluating
Alternatives and Making Choices
Simon (1957) – theory of bounded rationality
 Making Choices

– Framing effect is an example of cognitive bias, in which
people react differently to a particular choice depending on
whether it is presented as a loss or as a gain.
– Additive strategies
– Elimination by aspects
– Risky decision making
• Expected value – what you stand to gain
• Subjective utility - personal worth
• Subjective probability – personal estimates of probability
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Framing
Treatment A
Positive
"Saves 200 lives" "A 33% chance of saving all 600
people, 66% possibility of saving no one."
Treatment B
Negative
"400 people will die"
"A 33% chance that no
people will die, 66% probability that all 600 will die."
Treatment A was chosen by 72% of participants
when it was presented with positive framing ("saves
200 lives") dropping to only 22% when the same
choice was presented with negative framing ("400
people will die").
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Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
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The availability heuristic
The representativeness heuristic
The tendency to ignore base rates
The conjunction fallacy
The alternative outcomes effect
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