Non-white Racial Identity
Developmental Models
Alice in Wonderland
CHAPTER V: Advice from a Caterpillar
The Caterpillar and Alice looked at each other for some time in
silence: at last the Caterpillar took the hookah out of its mouth,
and addressed her in a languid, sleepy voice. 'Who are YOU?'
said the Caterpillar.
This was not an encouraging opening for a conversation. Alice
replied, rather shyly, 'I-I hardly know, sir, just at present- at least I
know who I WAS when I got up this morning, but I think I must
have been changed several times since then.' 'What do you mean
by that?' said the Caterpillar sternly. 'Explain yourself!'
'I can't explain MYSELF, I'm afraid, sir' said Alice, 'because I'm
not myself, you see.'
'I don't see,' said the Caterpillar.
'I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly,' Alice replied very politely, 'for
I can't understand it myself to begin with; and being so many
different sizes in a day is very confusing.'
'It isn't,' said the Caterpillar.
'Well, perhaps you haven't found it so yet,' said Alice; 'but when
you have to turn into a chrysalis-you will some day, you know-and
then after that into a butterfly, I should think you'll feel it a little
queer, won't you?'
'Not a bit,' said the Caterpillar.
'Well, perhaps your feelings may be different,' said Alice; 'all I
know is, it would feel very queer to ME.'
'You!' said the Caterpillar contemptuously. 'Who are YOU?'
Individual Exercise
Who are you?
(Answer 5 times, beginning with the words “I am”)





I am
I am
I am
I am
I am
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
Identity Development (Erickson)
Individual Exercise (feedback)
Many ways to answer:
1.
As a personal characteristic
2.
As a relationship to someone else
3.
As a professional/occupational role
4.
As an ideology
5.
As part of social identity groups
Identity Development (Phinney)
 May be viewed from the perspective of four statuses
 Statuses vary along two key areas (1) exploration and (2) commitment
 The four statuses include:
Diffused Status
Individuals have neither explored nor committed to a particular
identity meaning.
Foreclosed Status
Individuals firmly committed to an identity based on influential
others (e.g., parents) without engaging in exploration.
Moratorium Status
Individuals are actively exploring the meaning of their ethnic
identities but have not reached a commitment to a specific
definition.
Achieved Status
Individuals who have actively engaged in exploration and
have committed to a specific definition of their ethnic identity.
Identity status categories (Marcia)
COMMITMENT
E
X
P
L
O
R
A
T
I
O
N
Present
Absent
Present
Identity
Achievement
Moratorium
Absent
Identity
Foreclosure
Identity
Diffusion
Implications of Identity Approach
 Has real-world utility for understanding differences across the lifespan:

Adolescents were more likely to be in moratorium and less likely to
be achieved than college students and adults.

College student and adults were more likely to be in the achieved
status.
 Reveals interplay between identity development and racial awareness:

Achieved individuals considered race to be more important than
diffused, foreclosed, and moratorium individuals.

Moratorium and foreclosed individuals were more likely to perceive
race to be central to self-concepts than diffused individuals.

Moratorium or foreclosed individuals felt more positive about their
racial group than diffused individuals.
Group Identity
 Fills variety of needs

Identity

Social comparison (Social Identity
Theory)

Relief from existential angst (Terror
Management Theory)
Group Identity (cont)
 Encouraged through initiation rituals



Usually constructive
Sometimes used to promote hate
Sometimes used as proof of
commitment/loyalty
Bidirectional Influences…
 Group  individual



modeling of attitudes/behaviors
instrumental conditioning…
group extremity shift (exercise)
 Individual  group


leaders
non-conformists
Identity Politics
"Sooner or later, all disputes issue propositions of the
following sort: the central subject for understanding is
the difference between X (e.g., women, people of
color), and Y (e.g., white males). P is the case
because my people, X, see it that way; if you don't
agree with P, it is (or more mildly, is probably)
because you are a member of Y. And further: Since X
has been oppressed or silenced by Y -- typically white
heterosexual males -- justice requires that members of
X, preferably (though not necessarily) adherents of P,
be hired and promoted; and in the student body, in the
curriculum, on the reading list, and at the conference,
distinctly represented." (Gitlin, Dissent, 1993).
Two approaches to non-White racial identity
 Mainstream-Minority approach
 Multicultural approach
Multicultural approach
 Society is thought to consist of a number of different
cultural groups, in which no single group is dominant
in all regions or in all social spheres and smaller
groups are engaged in complex patterns of
involvement and mutual influences with the larger
groups
 Racial/ethnic identity is seen as a combination of
personal attitudes and experiences with both majority
and minority groups.
Mainstream-Minority approach
 Society is assumed to consist of a dominant culture
(the “mainstream”), and a number of subordinate
groups
 Racial identity is a developmental process in which
individuals traverse from one stage to another as a
result of experiences with either the mainstream
culture (in the case of the minority groups) or with
one or more of the minority groups (in the case of the
white majority)
Mainstream-Minority approach (cont.)
 Four factors influence strength of racial/ethnic identity




Size
Power
Discrimination
Appearance
Copyright Arunas Juska, Ph.D.
http://core.ecu.edu/soci/juskaa/SOCI2110/Lectures/Race/sld007.htm
 Dominant group's traditional aim:
Erase minority group consciousness (Why?)
Social history of Black racial identity
 Social history dominated by two competing processes

Deracination (attempt to erase “blackness”)




Decreased collective awareness of issues pertaining to race/class
Thought to increase acceptance into mainstream society
Decreased probability of group mobilization
Nigrescence (development of Black identity; French: to
become black)

Early attempts focused on stereotypical psychological profiles
 Traditional Negroes (Booker T. Washington)
 Agitators, Black Militants (W.E.B Du Bois, Black Panthers)

In 1970s, emphasis shifted to describing developmental processes
Double Consciousness
“It is a peculiar sensation, this double
consciousness, this sense of always looking at
one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring
one’s soul by the tape of the world that looks on in
amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his
twoness, -- an American, a Negro; two souls, two
thoughts two unreconciled strivings; two warring
ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength
alone keeps it from being torn asunder.”
(W.E.B. Du Bois, Souls of Black Folks, 1903)
Black racial identity development model
(Cross, 1971; 1991)
 Stage 1 (Pre-encounter): Person identifies with White people and culture and
rejects or devalues Black people and culture (may be diffused or foreclosed)
 Stage 2 (Encounter): Characterized by an emotional personal experience,
which fosters need to change (most likely moratorium)
 Stage 3 (Immersion-Emersion): Person completely identifies with Blacks,
idealizes Black culture, and abhors all things White (may be moratorium or
achieved)
 Stage 4 (Internalization): Person overcomes defensiveness, idealization, and
psychological effects of racism and develops a positive and secure Black
identity (most likely achieved)
 Stage 5 (Commitment): Person maintains Black identity while resisting the
various forms of social oppression (most likely achieved)
Racial Identity: The Case of Malcolm X
 Stage 1 (Pre-encounter)
Person identifies with White
people and culture and
rejects or devalues Black
people and culture
 Stage 2 (Encounter)
Characterized by an emotional
personal experience, which
fosters need to change
Racial Identity: The Case of Malcolm X
 Stage 3 (Immersion-Emersion)
Person completely identifies with
Blacks, idealizes Black culture,
and abhors all things White
 Stage 4 (Internalization)
Person overcomes defensiveness,
idealization, and psychological
effects of racism and develops a
positive and secure Black identity
 Stage 5 (Commitment)
Person maintains Black identity while
resisting the various forms of social
oppression
Measuring Racial Identity
(Helms & Parham, 1984)
 Preencounter
 31: I feel that black people do not have as much to be proud of as white people do.
 08: I believe that white people look and express themselves better than blacks.
 40: Sometimes, I wish I belonged to the white race.
 Encounter



3: I am increasing my involvement in Black activities because I don’t feel
comfortable in White environments
19: I am changing my style of life to fit my new beliefs about Black people
44. I can’t feel comfortable with either Black people or White people
 Immersion/Emersion
 34: White people can't be trusted.
 18: I believe that the world should be interpreted from a black perspective.
 23: When I am with people I trust, I often find myself referring to Whites as
“honkies,” “devils,” “pigs”, “white boys” and so forth
 Internalization/Commitment


06: I involve myself in causes that will help all oppressed people.
16: I involve myself in social action and political groups even if there are no other blacks
involved.
Black racial identity development model
Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)
Vandiver et al., 2002
 Pre-Encounter Assimilation:
Racial group membership is
minimized in favor of identity
as an American and an
individual.
Malcolm X
 Pre-Encounter Miseducation:
Internalizes negative or
stereotypical portrayals of
Black people.
 Pre-Encounter (Racial) Self-
Hatred: Experiences profound
negative feelings and selfloathing because he or she is
Black.
John Howard Griffin
Black racial identity development model
Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)
Vandiver et al., 2002
 Immersion-Emersion Anti-White: Persons who are
consumed by hatred of White people and White
society and will engage Black problems and Black
culture but is unpredictable.
 Immersion-Emersion Intense Black Involvement:
Hold simplistic and romantic beliefs about Black
culture and has an either/or mentality about complex
issues.
Black racial identity development model
Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)
Vandiver et al., 2002
 Internalization Nationalistic: Stresses an Afrocentric
perspective and engages Black problems and Black
culture. (Internalization Afrocentric)
 Internalization Biculturalist: Gives equal importance
to “Americanness” and Africanness (e.g., the
comfortable fusion of White and Black cultures).
Persons engage in aspects of mainstream culture
and still maintains dedication to Black culture.
 Internalization Multiculturalist: Identity spans three or
more social categories or frames of reference.
Persons feel and are a part of Black culture he or she
easily appreciates a wide range of cultural events
and activities.
Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
(Sue & Sue, 1990)
 Stage 1 (Conformity): Unequivocal preference for dominant
cultural values over their own.
 Stage 2 (Dissonance): Differential experiences challenge his/her
self-concept. Denial begins to break down = questioning of the
beliefs of the conformity stage.
 Stage 3 (Resistance & Immersion): Complete endorsement of
minority-held views, rejection of dominant values of society.
Desire to eliminate oppression, considerable guilt & shame that
"sold out" his/her own cultural group and/or were involved in
oppression.
 Stage 4 (Introspection): Dissatisfaction with rigid group views
which may be in conflict with their individual views.
 Stage 5 (Integrative Awareness): Belief that there are
acceptable & unacceptable aspects of ALL cultures, but person
should determine for themselves what is desirable.
Stage 1: Pre-encounter/conformity
Cross
(1971, 1991)
Sue & Sue
(1990)
Attitude
Attitude
towards self towards other
members of
the same
minority group
Attitude
towards
members of
other minority
groups
Attitude
towards the
dominant
group
likes self but
race not
salient or
hates black
part of self
discriminatory
groupappreciating
discriminatory
groupappreciating
group
disinterest or
group
deprecating
likes self but grouphates ethnic deprecating
part of self
Stage 2: Encounter/Dissonance
Cross
(1971, 1991)
Sue & Sue
(1990)
Attitude
towards self
Attitude
towards other
members of
the same
minority group
Attitude
towards
members of
other minority
groups
Attitude
towards the
dominant
group
anxious,
guilty, angry
confused
confused
angry, resentful
conflict
between selfdeprecating &
appreciating
conflict
between groupdeprecating &
groupappreciating
conflict between
dominant-held
views & feelings
of shared
experience
conflict between
groupappreciating &
groupdeprecating
Stage 3: Introspection/Immersion & Emersion
Cross
(1971, 1991)
Sue & Sue
(1990)
Attitude
Attitude
towards self towards other
members of the
same minority
group
Attitude
towards
members of
other minority
groups
Attitude
towards the
dominant group
likes self,
but
primarily
the black
part of self
idealization of
all things Black
but also a
“blacker-thanthou” attitude
disinterest
uncontrolled
rage, hate,
prejudice
concern
with the
basis of selfappreciation
concern with the
nature of
unequivocal
appreciation
concern with
ethnocentric
basis for judging
others
concern with
basis of groupdeprecation
Stage 4: Resistance and
Immersion/Internalization
Cross
(1971, 1991)
Sue & Sue
(1990)
Attitude
towards self
Attitude
towards other
members of the
same minority
group
Attitude
towards
members of
other minority
groups
Attitude
towards the
dominant
group
selfappreciating
groupappreciating
varies from
Black
nationalism to
multiculturalism
selective
appreciation,
controlled anger
at oppressive
systems
selfappreciating
groupappreciating
conflict between
feelings of
empathy &
feelings of
culturocentrism
groupdeprecating
Stage 5: Integrative Awareness
Cross
(1971, 1991)
Sue & Sue
(1990)
Attitude
towards self
Attitude
towards other
members of the
same minority
group
Attitude
towards
members of
other minority
groups
Attitude
towards the
dominant
group
selfappreciating
groupappreciating
varies from
Black
nationalism to
multiculturalism
Same as stage 4
but with
commitment to
Black
community
and/or racial
justice
selfappreciating
groupappreciating
groupappreciating
selective
appreciation
Demographic Differences
• Gender
Men theorized to have a harder time embracing identity change
(Munford, 1994) but could not find empirical data
• Class
Higher income associated with higher pre-encounter scores and less
internalization (Parham and Williams, 1993)
• Education (no significant relationship)
The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI)
Racial Identity
Racial Salience
Racial Centrality
Racial Regard
Racial Ideology
“The extent to which one’s race is a
relevant part of one’s self-concept
at a particular moment or in
particular situation”
“In general, being Black is an
important part
of my self image.”
“A person’s affective and evaluative
judgment of his or her race.”
“The individual’s beliefs, opinions,
and attitudes with respect to the way he or
she feels that the members of the race
should act.”
Public
“Overall, Blacks are
considered good by others.”
Nationalist
“Blacks and Whites can never
live in true harmony because
of racial differences.”
Oppressed Minority
Private
“I
feel good about Black people”
“The same forces which have
led to the oppression of
Blacks have also led to the
oppression of other groups.”
Assimilation
“Blacks should try to work
within the system to
achieve their political and
economic goals.”
Humanist
“Blacks and Whites have more
commonalities than
differences.”
Sellers, R. M., Shelton, J. N., Cooke, D. Y., Chavous, T. M., Rowley, S. A. J., & Smith, M. A. A Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: Assumptions, Findings, and Future Directions.
African American Identity Development, 275-299
The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI)
Racial Ideology
“The individual’s beliefs,
opinions, and attitudes
with respect to the way
he or she feels that
the members of the
Race should act.”
Nationalist
• Emphasizes the uniqueness of the
Black experience
•Believes that Blacks should be in
control of their own destinies with
minimal input from other groups
(Self-determination)
•Believes that Blacks should work
and/or socialize together in order to
promote the advancement
of the race
(Preference for African American
social environments)
Oppressed Minority
•Emphasizes the commonalities of
Experience between African Americans
And other oppressed groups
•More likely to view coalition building
as the most appropriate strategy for
Social change
•Equally interested in the culture of
other minority groups as
they are in their own
Humanist
Assimilationist
•Emphasizes the commonalities of
African Americans and the rest of
American society
•Believes in working within mainstream
structures to change these systems
and achieve life goals
• Stresses the importance of social
interaction between
Blacks and Whites
•Emphasizes the commonalities of
all humans
•Believes people should be viewed as
Individuals, not representatives of
their race
•May hold strong beliefs in a larger
force that impacts the destiny
of all people
•Less likely to define themselves in
terms of race; likely to exhibit low
levels of racial centrality
Sellers, R. M., Shelton, J. N., Cooke, D. Y., Chavous, T. M., Rowley, S. A. J., & Smith, M. A. A Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: Assumptions, Findings, and Future Directions.
African American Identity Development, 275-299