Research completed!
Now for the hard part:
Writing the Paper!
Barbara Meyers, MS
Interim Director of Publications
American Geophysical Union
Writing the Paper! B.M.Ford Copyright 2009
300+ Years Ago
1665
First Scientific Journals Published:
Journal des Scavans in France
Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society in London
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
170+ Years Ago
1838
First Peer-Reviewed Journal
Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society
published quarterly
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
What is a scientific paper?
A scientific paper is a written and
published report describing original
research results.
» Robert A. Day
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Defining a Scientific Paper
An acceptable primary scientific publication must
be the first disclosure containing sufficient
information to enable peers
(1) To assess observations,
(2) To repeat experiments, and
(3) To evaluate intellectual processes
More . . .
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Defining the Scientific Paper
[the paper] must be
susceptible to sensory perception,
essentially permanent,
available to the scientific community without
restriction, and
available for regular screening by one or
more of the major recognized secondary
services.
» Council of Science Editors
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Who’s your audience?
• Specialized journal
• General discipline journal
• General science journal
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
First Steps
• Order and organize and outline
• Write with a sense of purpose
• Clarity and conciseness
• Narrative +
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
A Few Tips
• Start writing before you finish
researching
• Develop a provisional title/outline in
your mind if not on paper; share this
with co-authors
• Writing sometimes leads to
inconsistencies in the research
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
IMRAD
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Introduction
Methods
Results
And
Discussion
The IMRAD Method for Journal Articles Initiated
in the late 1880’s; ANSI Z39.16 IMRAD
Standard Ratified in 1972.
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
What was the problem?
• Your answer is the Introduction
– Definition of the problem must be
reasonably stated
– Present literature review and choice of
methodology
– State principle results = capstone of the
Introduction
– Define specialized terms or abbreviations
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Introduction Basics
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•
•
•
Keep it short
Tell why you did the research
Explain its importance
Hook your audience with the first line
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
The Methods Section
Tell exactly …
•
•
•
•
What hypothesis was tested
How the study was designed
How the study was carried out
How the data were analyzed
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Methods Basics
• Write in chronological order
– BUT, describe related methods
together
• Use subheads
– “Match” with those in Results for
internal consistency
• Be precise
• Include tabular material
• Do NOT mix in what should be
covered in Results
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
The Results Section
• Two ingredients
(1) Overall description of the
experiment without repeating
experimental details from Methods
(2)Your data
– Present representative versus endlessly
repetitive data
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Results Basics
• Answer questions posed in the
Introduction
• Tables and illustrations should be able
to stand alone
• Tell the story with an example of a
typical result; summarize all results;
provide an unexpected result
• Present statistics well; condense but
don’t confuse
• Use carefully selected illustrations
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
The Discussion Section
• Components include
– Principles, relationships,
generalizations
– Exceptions or lack of correlation
– How results and interpretations
agree (or contrast)
– Theoretical or practical applications
– Conclusion drawn from the results
more…
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
The Discussion Section
“Discussion” should include as well
• Clear statement of the main findings
• Highlight any shortcomings of the
methods used
• Compare the results with other
published findings
• Discuss the implications of the findings
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Discussion Basics
• Don’t use the “squid technique”
– “… the author is doubtful about his facts or
his reasoning and retreats behind a
protective cloud of ink”
» Doug Savile
• Show factual relationships among
observed facts
• End with a short summary regarding
the significance of the work AND the
need for further study
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Constructing the Title
• Indicate subject matter
– NOT why the paper was written; what the
findings were; what conclusions were
drawn
• Brevity = soul of wit AND vital to
successful communication
• Be interesting; but not misleading
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Title Basics
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•
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•
Simpler = Better
Consider target audience
Read by thousands
Few are too short; many are too long
Use specific vs. general terms
Avoid excessive adjectives and noun
strings
• Syntax: watch your word order
• Abbreviations & Jargon, NOT
• Don’t be a sensationalist!
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Structuring the Abstract
• Describe the essence of the paper in a standalone paragraph
• Include 4 basic elements
• Why the study was done
• What was done
• What was found
• What was concluded
• 150 words maximum = unstructured abstract
• 250 words maximum = structured abstract
• Be clear; concise; avoid unnecessary detail
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Producing a Useful Reference List
• Restrict list to references with a direct
bearing on the work described
• Use the journal’s reference style
• Check the “Instructions for Authors” to
be sure all necessary details for each
reference are included
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Final Comment: Publication Ethics
Umbrella term covering the processes involved in
research and the publication of results
including
• Advertising
Authorship
• Confidentiality
Conflict of Interest
• Editorial Freedom
Media
• Peer Review
Redundant Publication
• Research Ethics
Research Integrity
• Supplements
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009
Thanks for your attention.
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?Any Questions?
Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009