Response to Intervention
RTI: Academic
Interventions for Difficultto-Teach Students
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Workshop PPTs and Handout Available at:
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/picayune.php
Additional Intervention and Assessment
Resources Available at:
http://www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Workshop Topics
1. ‘Big Ideas’ in Academic Interventions for
Difficult-to-Teach Students
2. Reading: Instruction & Interventions for Fluency
& Comprehension
3. Writing: Instruction & Interventions
4. Study/Organizational Skills: Interventions
5. Motivating the Reluctant Student
6. Finding Internet Resources to Help Support
Middle/High School RTI
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Response to Intervention
“The quality of a school as a learning
community can be measured by how
effectively it addresses the needs of
struggling students.”
--Wright (2005)
Source: Wright, J. (2005, Summer). Five interventions that work. NAESP Leadership Compass, 2(4) pp.1,6.
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Response to Intervention
Secondary Students: Unique Challenges…
Struggling learners in middle and high school may:
• Have significant deficits in basic academic skills
• Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
concepts
• Present with issues of school motivation
• Show social/emotional concerns that interfere with
academics
• Have difficulty with attendance
• Are often in a process of disengaging from learning
even as adults in school expect that those students will
move toward being ‘self-managing’ learners…
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Response to Intervention
RTI Assumption: Struggling Students Are ‘Typical’
Until Proven Otherwise…
RTI logic assumes that:
– A student who begins to struggle in general education is typical,
and that
– It is general education’s responsibility to find the instructional
strategies that will unlock the student’s learning potential
Only when the student shows through well-documented
interventions that he or she has ‘failed to respond to
intervention’ does RTI begin to investigate the possibility
that the student may have a learning disability or other
special education condition.
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Response to Intervention
School Dropout as a Process, Not an Event
“It is increasingly accepted that dropout is best
conceptualized as a long-term process, not an
instantaneous event; however, most interventions
are administered at a middle or high school level
after problems are severe.”
Source: Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., & Hess, R. (2008). Best practices in increasing the likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists..
p.1090
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Response to Intervention
Remediating Academic Deficits: The Widening Curriculum Gap…
Small academic
gap (elementary
school). Student
is only mildly offlevel. The
building
Reading Fluency
curriculum
overlaps the
student’s point of
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
‘instructional
match’.
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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Response to Intervention
Remediating Academic Deficits: The Widening Curriculum Gap…
Widening academic
gap (middle school).
Student is significantly
off-level. The building
curriculum barely
overlaps the student’s
point of ‘instructional
match’.
Reading Fluency
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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Response to Intervention
Remediating Academic Deficits: The Widening Curriculum Gap…
Largest academic gap
(high school). Student is
significantly off-level. The
building curriculum does
not overlap the student’s
point of ‘instructional
match’ at all.
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Subject-Area Rdng Comprehension
Rdng-Basic Comprehension
Rdng Fluency
K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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Response to Intervention
Student Motivation & The Need for Intervention
“A common response to students who struggle in sixth
grade is to wait and hope they grow out of it or adapt, to
attribute early struggles to the natural commotion of
early adolescence and to temporary difficulties in
adapting to new organizational structures of schooling,
more challenging curricula and assessment, and less
personalized attention. Our evidence clearly indicates
that, at least in high-poverty urban schools, sixth
graders who are missing 20% or more of the days,
exhibiting poor behavior, or failing math or English do
not recover. On the contrary, they drop out. This says
that early intervention is not only productive but
absolutely essential.”
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
What Are the ‘Early Warning Flags’ of Student Drop-Out?
•
•
•
•
A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
tracked for 8 years. These early warning indicators were
found to predict student drop-out in the sixth-grade
year:
Failure in English
Failure in math
Missing at least 20% of school days
Receiving an ‘unsatisfactory’ behavior rating from at
least one teacher
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of ‘Early Warning Flags’ Probability That Student Would
in Student Record
Graduate
None
56%
1
36%
2
21%
3
13%
4
7%
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
Focus on School Factors That We Can Control
“Some factors in students’ lives (such as family divorce, moving
frequently, drug use, and poor teaching) lower the probability
that these students will learn and/or get along with others. These
are often referred to as risk factors…Risk factors do not assure
student failure. Risk factors simply make the odds of failure
greater. Aligning assessment and instruction allows teachers…to
introduce new factors into the student’s life that raise the
probability of learning. These are often called protective factors
since they protect against the risks associated with risk
factors…The use of protective factors to raise the probability of
learning is often referred to as resilience.”
Source: Hosp, J. L. (2008). Best practices in aligning academic assessment with instruction. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.),
Best practices in school psychology V (pp.363-376). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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Response to Intervention
1. Academic Interventions: ‘Big
Ideas’ and Critical Components
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Response to Intervention
RTI ‘Pyramid of
Interventions’
Tier 3
Tier 2
Tier 1
Tier 3: Intensive interventions.
Students who are ‘nonresponders’ to Tiers 1 & 2 are
referred to the RTI Team for more
intensive interventions.
Tier 2 Individualized
interventions. Subset of
students receive interventions
targeting specific needs.
Tier 1: Universal interventions.
Available to all students in a
classroom or school. Can consist
of whole-group or individual
strategies or supports.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Intervention: Key Concepts
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
that are used routinely with all students in a
general-education setting are considered ‘core
instruction’. High-quality instruction is essential
and forms the foundation of RTI academic
support. NOTE: While it is important to verify that
good core instructional practices are in place for
a struggling student, those routine practices do
not ‘count’ as individual student interventions.
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Intervention. An academic intervention is a
strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
existing skill to new situations or settings. An
intervention can be thought of as “a set of
actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
ability to change a fixed educational trajectory”
(Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008; p. 37).
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to help
the student to fully access and participate in the generaleducation curriculum without changing the instructional
content and without reducing the student’s rate of learning
(Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
intended to remove barriers to learning while still expecting
that students will master the same instructional content as
their typical peers.
– Accommodation example 1: Students are allowed to supplement
silent reading of a novel by listening to the book on tape.
– Accommodation example 2: For unmotivated students, the
instructor breaks larger assignments into smaller ‘chunks’ and
providing students with performance feedback and praise for each
completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work (Skinner, Pappas & Davis,
2005).
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Response to Intervention
“
“Teaching is giving; it
isn’t taking away.”
”
(Howell, Hosp & Kurns, 2008; p. 356).
Source: Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., & Kurns, S. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists..
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations &
Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Modification. A modification changes the expectations of
what a student is expected to know or do—typically by
lowering the academic standards against which the student
is to be evaluated.
Examples of modifications:
– Giving a student five math computation problems for practice
instead of the 20 problems assigned to the rest of the class
– Letting the student consult course notes during a test when peers
are not permitted to do so
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: The Four Stages of Learning Can Be
Summed Up in the ‘Instructional Hierarchy’
(Haring et al., 1978)
Student learning can be thought of as a multi-stage process. The
universal stages of learning include:
• Acquisition: The student is just acquiring the skill.
• Fluency: The student can perform the skill but
must make that skill ‘automatic’.
• Generalization: The student must perform the skill
across situations or settings.
• Adaptation: The student confronts novel task
demands that require that the student adapt a
current skill to meet new requirements.
Source: Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus,
OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.
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Response to Intervention
Mini-Skills Moment:
Defining Academic Problems: The Key Step in
Matching Students to Effective Interventions
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Response to Intervention
Defining Academic Problems: Recommended Steps
The problem-identification step is the most critical for matching
the student to an effective intervention (Bergan, 1995).
Problem identification statements should be defined in clear and
specific terms sufficient to pass ‘the stranger test’ (Howell,
Hosp, & Kurns, 2008): That is, the student problem can be
judged as adequately defined if a person with no background
knowledge of the case and equipped only with the problemidentification statement can observe the student in the academic
setting and know with confidence when the problem behavior is
displayed and when it is not.
Sources: Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological
Consultation, 6(2), 111-123..
Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., & Kurns, S. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.),
Best practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Academic Problems: Write a Clear Descriptive
Statement
Write a 3-part description of the academic problem. When describing a
student’s academic problem, the teacher includes the following three
elements:
– Conditions (‘What is the student supposed to do?’). Describe the
environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic
problem is observed.
– Problem Description (‘What does the student actually do?’). Describe
the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is
engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of
student performance.
– Typical or Expected Level of Performance.(‘What is the performance that
you expect from this student?’). Provide a typical or expected
performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected
academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Academic Problems: Develop a ‘Best Guess’
About the Reason for the Academic Problem
Develop a hypothesis statement to explain the academic skill or
performance problem. The hypothesis states the assumed
reason(s) or cause(s) for the student’s academic problems. Once it
has been developed, the hypothesis statement acts as a compass
needle, pointing toward interventions that most logically address the
student academic problems. Listed below are common reasons for
academic problems. Note that more than one hypothesis may apply
to a particular student (e.g., a student may have both a skill deficit
and a motivation deficit).
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Team Activity: What Are Your Students’ Greatest
Academic Challenges?
In your groups:
• Discuss the greatest academic
problems that your students face
and select 2-3 that you believe
are the MOST challenging.
• Be prepared to report out.
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Response to Intervention
2. Reading Instruction &
Interventions
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Response to Intervention
Savvy Teacher’s
Guide: Reading
Interventions That
Work
(Wright, 2000)
Available for free from:
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Fluency
• Profile of a Student with This Concern:
The student’s rate of decoding text is sufficiently slow to
hinder him or her in efficiently reading and understanding
the content of assigned reading.
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Fluency
What the Research Says:
National Reading Panel Report (2000): “An extensive
review of the literature indicates that classroom practices
that encourage repeated oral reading with feedback and
guidance leads to meaningful improvements in reading
expertise for students—for good readers as well as those
who are experiencing difficulties.”-p. 3-3
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Response to Intervention
Interventions for…Increasing Reading Fluency
• Assisted Reading Practice
• Listening Passage Preview (‘Listening
While Reading’)
• Paired Reading
• Repeated Reading
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Fluency
Sample Intervention: Repeated Reading:
1. The student has a reading selection of 100-200 words. The
student reads aloud while the tutor follows along silently.
2. If the student hesitates for longer than 5 seconds, the tutor
reads the word aloud and has the student repeat the word
correctly before continuing through the passage. If the student
asks for help with any word, the tutor reads the word aloud. If
the student requests a word definition, the tutor supplies the
definition.
3. REPEATED READING CRITERION: The student continues
until he or she (Choice A) has read the passage 4 times or
(Choice B) can read the passage at the rate of at least 85 to
100 words per minute.
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Fluency
HELPS Program: www.helpsprogram.org
• HELPS (Helping Early Literacy with Practice Strategies) is a free
tutoring program that targets student reading fluency skills.
Developed by Dr. John Begeny of North Carolina State University,
the program is an evidence-based intervention package that
includes:
–
–
–
–
adult modeling of fluent reading,
repeated reading of passages by the student,
phrase-drill error correction,
verbal cueing and retell check to encourage student reading
comprehension,
– reward procedures to engage and encourage the student reader.
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Response to Intervention
‘Fifteen Elements of Effective Adolescent Literacy Programs’
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Direct, explicit comprehension
instruction
Effective instructional principles
embedded in content
Motivation and self-directed
learning
Text-based collaborative
learning
Formative evaluation of reading
skills
Strategic tutoring
Diverse texts
Intensive writing
Technology component
10. Extended time for literacy across
classes
11. Professional development
12. Ongoing summative assessment of
students and programs
13. Teacher teams (interdisciplinary
with a student problem-solving
focus)
14. Leadership
15. Comprehensive and coordinated
literacy program (interdisciplinary,
interdepartmental)
Source: Biancarosa, C., & Snow, C. E. (2006). Reading next—A vision for action and research in middle and high school
literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.).Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http://www.all4ed.org/files/ReadingNext.pdf
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction:
Strategies to Promote
Literacy Skills in
Content-Area
Classrooms
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Response to Intervention
Promoting Literacy in Middle & High School
Classrooms: Three Elements
• Explicit vocabulary instruction
• Extended discussion
• Reading comprehension
Source: Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving adolescent literacy:
Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Secondary Literacy:
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
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Response to Intervention
Vocabulary: Why This Instructional Goal is
Important
As vocabulary terms become more specialized in
content area courses, students are less able to derive
the meaning of unfamiliar words from context alone.
Students must instead learn vocabulary through more
direct means, including having opportunities to explicitly
memorize words and their definitions.
Students may require 12 to 17 meaningful exposures to
a word to learn it.
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Response to Intervention
Differences in Vocabulary Development Between Stronger
and Weaker Students
“Vocabulary difficulties are not unique to advanced readers as
they typically show up before third grade. At that point, those with
high vocabularies know thousands more word meanings and are
learning new ones at a much faster rate than those experiencing
difficulties.
Biemiller and Slonim (2001), for example, found the highest
quartile primary students learned approximately three words a
day compared to 1.5 for the lowest quartile students. By high
school, top achievers have been shown to know four times the
words of lower performing classmates. Perhaps the most
disturbing fact about these trends is that they persist.” p. 401
Source: Howell, K. W. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation and advanced reading. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 397-413).
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Response to Intervention
Provide Dictionary Training
The student is trained to use an Internet lookup strategy
to better understand dictionary or glossary definitions of
key vocabulary items.
– The student first looks up the word and its meaning(s) in the
dictionary/glossary.
– If necessary, the student isolates the specific word meaning
that appears to be the appropriate match for the term as it
appears in course texts and discussion.
– The student goes to an Internet search engine (e.g., Google)
and locates at least five text samples in which the term is
used in context and appears to match the selected dictionary
definition.
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Response to Intervention
Promote ‘Wide Reading’
Students read widely in the content area, using texts
that supplement and extend information supplied by the
textbook. ‘Wide reading’ results in substantial increases
in student vocabulary over time due to incidental
learning. To strengthen the positive impact of wide
reading on vocabulary development, have student texts
available that vary in difficulty and that are of high
interest. Discuss readings in class. Experiment with
ways to document student independent reading and
integrate that ‘wide reading’ into an effort grade for the
course. If needed, build time into the student’s school
schedule for supervised ‘wide reading’ time.
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Response to Intervention
Hold ‘Read-Alouds’
Select texts that supplement the course textbook and that
illustrate central concepts and contain important vocabulary
covered in the course. Read those texts aloud for 3 to 5
minutes per class session--while students follow along
silently. Read-alouds provide students with additional
exposure to vocabulary items in context. They can also
lower the threshold of difficulty: Students may be more likely
to attempt to read an assigned text independently if they
have already gotten a start in the text by listening to a more
advanced reader read the first few pages aloud. Readalouds can support other vocabulary-building activities such
as guided discussion, vocabulary review, and wide reading.
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Response to Intervention
Provide Regular In-Class Instruction and
Review of Vocabulary Terms, Definitions
Present important new vocabulary terms in class,
along with student-friendly definitions. Provide
‘example sentences’ to illustrate the use of the term.
Assign students to write example sentences
employing new vocabulary to illustrate their mastery
of the terms.
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Response to Intervention
Generate ‘Possible Sentences’
The teacher selects 6 to 8 challenging new vocabulary
terms and 4 to 6 easier, more familiar vocabulary items
relevant to the lesson. Introduce the vocabulary terms to
the class. Have students write sentences that contain at
least two words from the posted vocabulary list. Then write
examples of student sentences on the board until all words
from the list have been used. After the assigned reading,
review the ‘possible sentences’ that were previously
generated. Evaluate as a group whether, based on the
passage, the sentence is ‘possible’ (true) in its current form.
If needed, have the group recommend how to change the
sentence to make it ‘possible’.
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Response to Intervention
Enhance Vocabulary Instruction Through Use of
Graphic Organizers or Displays: A Sampling
Teachers can use graphic displays to structure
their vocabulary discussions and activities
(Boardman et al., 2008; Fisher, 2007; Texas
Reading Initiative, 2002).
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Response to Intervention
4-Square Graphic Display
The student divides a page into four quadrants.
In the upper left section, the student writes the
target word. In the lower left section, the student
writes the word definition. In the upper right
section, the student generates a list of examples
that illustrate the term, and in the lower right
section, the student writes ‘non-examples’ (e.g.,
terms that are the opposite of the target
vocabulary word).
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Semantic Word Definition Map
The graphic display contains sections in which
the student writes the word, its definition (‘what
is this?’), additional details that extend its
meaning (‘What is it like?’), as well as a listing of
examples and ‘non-examples’ (e.g., terms that
are the opposite of the target vocabulary word).
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Response to Intervention
Word Definition Map Example
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Semantic Feature Analysis
A target vocabulary term is selected for analysis
in this grid-like graphic display. Possible features
or properties of the term appear along the top
margin, while examples of the term are listed ion
the left margin. The student considers the
vocabulary term and its definition. Then the
student evaluates each example of the term to
determine whether it does or does not match
each possible term property or element.
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Response to Intervention
Semantic Feature Analysis Example
• VOCABULARY TERM: TRANSPORTATION
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Comparison/Contrast (Venn) Diagram
Two terms are listed and defined. For each
term, the student brainstorms qualities or
properties or examples that illustrate the term’s
meaning. Then the student groups those
qualities, properties, and examples into 3
sections:
A. items unique to Term 1
B. items unique to Term 2
C. items shared by both terms
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Secondary Literacy:
Extended Discussion
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Response to Intervention
Extended Discussions: Why This Instructional Goal
is Important
Extended, guided group discussion is a powerful means to help
students to learn vocabulary and advanced concepts. Discussion
can also model for students various ‘thinking processes’ and
cognitive strategies (Kamil et al. 2008, p. 22). To be effective,
guided discussion should go beyond students answering a series
of factual questions posed by the teacher: Quality discussions are
typically open-ended and exploratory in nature, allowing for
multiple points of view (Kamil et al., 2008).
When group discussion is used regularly and well in instruction,
students show increased growth in literacy skills. Content-area
teachers can use it to demonstrate the ‘habits of mind’ and
patterns of thinking of experts in various their discipline: e.g.,
historians, mathematicians, chemists, engineers, literacy critics,
etc.
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Response to Intervention
Use a ‘Standard Protocol’ to Structure Extended
Discussions
Good extended classwide discussions elicit a
wide range of student opinions, subject
individual viewpoints to critical scrutiny in a
supportive manner, put forth alternative views,
and bring closure by summarizing the main
points of the discussion. Teachers can use a
simple structure to effectively and reliably
organize their discussions…
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Response to Intervention
‘Standard Protocol’ Discussion Format
A. Pose questions to the class that require students to explain their
positions and their reasoning .
B. When needed, ‘think aloud’ as the discussion leader to model
good reasoning practices (e.g., taking a clear stand on a topic).
C. Supportively challenge student views by offering possible
counter arguments.
D. Single out and mention examples of effective student reasoning.
E. Avoid being overly directive; the purpose of extended
discussions is to more fully investigate and think about complex
topics.
F. Sum up the general ground covered in the discussion and
highlight the main ideas covered.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Secondary Literacy:
Reading Comprehension
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension: Why This Instructional
Goal is Important
Students require strong reading comprehension skills to
succeed in challenging content-area classes.
At present, there is no clear evidence that any one
reading comprehension instructional technique is clearly
superior to others. In fact, it appears that students
benefit from being taught any self-directed practice that
prompts them to engage more actively in understanding
the meaning of text (Kamil et al., 2008).
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Response to Intervention
Assist Students in Setting ‘Content Goals’ for
Reading
Students are more likely to be motivated to read--and to
read more closely—if they have specific content-related
reading goals in mind. At the start of a reading
assignment, for example, the instructor has students
state what questions they might seek to answer or what
topics they would like to learn more about in their
reading. The student or teacher writes down these
questions. After students have completed the assignee
reading, they review their original questions and share
what they have learned (e.g., through discussion in
large group or cooperative learning group, or even as a
written assignment).
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Comprehension
• Profile of a Student with This Concern:
The student lacks strategies to help him or her to focus on
essential information from assigned readings. (NOTE:
Additional factors such as limited vocabulary can
contribute to the reading comprehension problem.)
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Comprehension
What the Research Says:
“…intermediate and secondary grade students who are
not proficient with beginning reading skills most often have
learned an array of “misrules” or ineffective reading tactics
that need to be corrected or unlearned as they acquire
advance reading skills. Thus, the content of corrective
reading instruction can differ in important ways from
beginning and even from remedial reading instruction...”
Source: Howell, K. W. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation and advanced reading. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 397-413).
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Response to Intervention
Academic Target: Reading Comprehension
Sample Interventions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
‘Click or Clunk?’ Self-Check
Keywords: A Memorization Strategy
Main Idea Maps
Mental Imagery: Improving Text Recall
Oral Recitation Lesson
Prior Knowledge: Activating the ‘Known’
Question-Generation
Reciprocal Teaching: A Reading Comprehension Package
Story Map
Text Lookback
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Response to Intervention
Main Idea Maps
This simple strategy teaches
students to generate a
graphic organizer containing
the main ideas and
supporting details of each
paragraph in an expository
passage.
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Response to Intervention
Main Idea Maps:
Sample Graphic
Organizer
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Response to Intervention
Mental Imagery:
Improving Text
Recall
By constructing “mental
pictures” of what they are
reading and closely studying
text illustrations, students
increase their reading
comprehension.
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Response to Intervention
Characteristics of the Middle or High School Reader (Cont.)
“…because students who have trouble reading read less material
(even if they have read for the same total amount of time), they
will have encountered fewer words and ideas by the time they
read the upper grades….
This limited pool of background (i.e., prior) knowledge will make it
more difficult for them to learn new information from text, even if
the reading problem is magically corrected over night. In many
instances, this lack of prior/background knowledge is the most
significant learning characteristic of this group of students.” p. 400
Source: Howell, K. W. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation and advanced reading. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 397-413).
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Response to Intervention
Prior Knowledge:
Activating the
‘Known’
Through a series of guided
questions, the instructor helps
students activate their prior
knowledge of a specific topic to
help them comprehend the
content of a story or article on
the same topic. Linking new
facts to prior knowledge
increases a student’s inferential
comprehension (ability to place
novel information in a
meaningful context by
comparing it to already-learned
information).
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Response to Intervention
Activating Prior
Knowledge:
Student Exercise
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Response to Intervention
Text
Lookback
Text lookback is a simple
strategy that students can
use to boost their recall of
expository prose by looking
back in the text for important
information.
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Response to Intervention
“
“…One way I have used the Maze in the past at the
secondary level, is as a targeted screener to determine an
instructional match between the student and the text
materials. By screening all students on one to three Maze
samples from the text and/or books that were planned for
the course, we could find the students who could not
handle the materials without support (study guides,
highlighted texts, alternative reading material). …This
assessment is efficient and it seems quite reliable in
identifying the potential underachievers, achievers, and
overachievers. The real pay back is that success can be
built into the courses from the beginning, by providing
learning materials and supports at the students'
instructional levels.”
”
Lynn Pennington, Executive Director, SSTAGE
(Student Support Team Association for Georgia Educators)
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Response to Intervention
Promoting Student
Reading
Comprehension ‘FixUp’ Skills
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit
Good readers continuously monitor their understanding of
informational text. When necessary, they also take steps to
improve their understanding of text through use of reading
comprehension ‘fix-up’ skills.
Presented here are a series of fix-up skill strategies that can
help struggling students to better understand difficult reading
assignments…
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Core Instruction] Providing Main Idea Practice through
‘Partner Retell’ (Carnine & Carnine, 2004). Students in a
group or class are assigned a text selection to read silently.
Students are then paired off, with one student assigned the
role of ‘reteller’ and the other appointed as ‘listener’. The
reteller recounts the main idea to the listener, who can
comment or ask questions. The teacher then states the main
idea to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key details from
the reading that support the main idea and shares these with
the listener. At the end of the activity, the teacher does a spot
check by randomly calling on one or more students in the
listener role and asking them to recap what information was
shared by the reteller.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Promoting Understanding & Building
Endurance through Reading-Reflection Pauses (Hedin &
Conderman, 2010). The student decides on a reading interval
(e.g., every four sentences; every 3 minutes; at the end of
each paragraph). At the end of each interval, the student
pauses briefly to recall the main points of the reading. If the
student has questions or is uncertain about the content, the
student rereads part or all of the section just read. This
strategy is useful both for students who need to monitor their
understanding as well as those who benefit from brief breaks
when engaging in intensive reading as a means to build up
endurance as attentive readers.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Identifying or Constructing Main Idea
Sentences (Davey & McBride, 1986; Rosenshine, Meister &
Chapman, 1996). For each paragraph in an assigned reading,
the student either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or (b)
highlights key details and uses them to write a ‘gist’ sentence.
The student then writes the main idea of that paragraph on an
index card. On the other side of the card, the student writes a
question whose answer is that paragraph’s main idea
sentence. This stack of ‘main idea’ cards becomes a useful
tool to review assigned readings.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Restructuring Paragraphs with Main Idea
First to Strengthen ‘Rereads’ (Hedin & Conderman, 2010).
The student highlights or creates a main idea sentence for
each paragraph in the assigned reading. When rereading each
paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads the main idea
sentence or student-generated ‘gist’ sentence first (irrespective
of where that sentence actually falls in the paragraph); (2)
reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) reflects on how
the main idea relates to the paragraph content.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Summarizing Readings (Boardman et al.,
2008). The student is taught to summarize readings into main
ideas and essential details--stripped of superfluous content.
The act of summarizing longer readings can promote
understanding and retention of content while the summarized
text itself can be a useful study tool.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Linking Pronouns to Referents (Hedin &
Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the connection
between pronouns and the nouns that they refer to (known as
‘referents’)—especially when reading challenging text. The
student is encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
explicitly identify each pronoun’s referent, and (optionally) to
write next to the pronoun the name of its referent. For example,
the student may add the referent to a pronoun in this sentence
from a biology text: “The Cambrian Period is the first geological
age that has large numbers of multi-celled organisms
associated with it Cambrian Period.”
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• Student Strategy] Apply Vocabulary ‘Fix-Up’ Skills for
Unknown Words (Klingner & Vaughn, 1999). When
confronting an unknown word in a reading selection, the
student applies the following vocabulary ‘fix-up’ skills:
1. Read the sentence again.
2. Read the sentences before and after the problem
sentence for clues to the word’s meaning.
3. See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word that can
give clues to meaning.
4. Break the word up by syllables and look for ‘smaller words’
within.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Compiling a Vocabulary Journal from
Course Readings (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). The student
highlights new or unfamiliar vocabulary from course readings.
The student writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using a
standard ‘sentence-stem’ format: e.g., “Mitosis means…” or “A
chloroplast is…”. If the student is unable to generate a
definition for a vocabulary term based on the course reading,
he or she writes the term into the vocabulary journal without
definition and then applies other strategies to define the term:
e.g., look up the term in a dictionary; use Google to locate two
examples of the term being used correctly in context; ask the
instructor, etc.).
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Encouraging Student Use of Text
Enhancements (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). Text
enhancements can be used to tag important vocabulary terms,
key ideas, or other reading content. If working with
photocopied material, the student can use a highlighter to note
key ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy is the
‘lasso and rope’ technique—using a pen or pencil to circle a
vocabulary term and then drawing a line that connects that
term to its underlined definition. If working from a textbook, the
student can cut sticky notes into strips. These strips can be
inserted in the book as pointers to text of interest. They can
also be used as temporary labels—e.g., for writing a
vocabulary term and its definition.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Reading Actively Through Text
Annotation (Harris, 1990; Sarkisian et al., 2003). Students are
likely to increase their retention of information when they
interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the
margin of the text. Using photocopies, the student is taught to
engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by
recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of
the text. The student may write annotations to record opinions
about points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the
reading, or unknown vocabulary words.
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Response to Intervention
Discussion: Making Interventions Happen…
There are a number of ways that instructional and
intervention strategies can be delivered, such as
through:
 Teacher-delivered (uniformly in all classrooms)
 Teacher-delivered (taught to the entire class in
one course as a ‘module’)
 Reading lab or other pull-out setting
 Student peer tutoring
 Use of non-instructional staff (e.g., support
staff, paraprofessionals, etc.)
 Parents
 Adult volunteers/tutors
 Student (self-administered)
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Review the reading
comprehension strategies
listed on the next screen.
In your groups, discuss
how your school might use
one or more of the
‘delivery options’ listed
here to implement those
interventions where
needed.
90
Response to Intervention
Discussion: Making Interventions Happen…
Reading Comprehension Scripts
• Main Idea Maps
• Mental Imagery
• Activating the Known
• Text Lookback
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up
Skills (pp. 7-8):
• Promoting Understanding & Building
Endurance through ReadingReflection Pauses
• Identifying or Constructing Main
Idea Sentences
• Restructuring Paragraphs with Main
Idea First to Strengthen ‘Rereads’
• Summarizing Readings
• Linking Pronouns to Referents
• Apply Vocabulary ‘Fix-Up’ Skills for
Unknown Words
• Compiling a Vocabulary Journal
from Course Readings
• Encouraging Student Use of Text
Enhancements
• Reading Actively Through Text
Annotation
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Response to Intervention
3. Writing
Instruction &
Interventions
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Response to Intervention
"If all the grammarians in the
world were placed end to end, it
would be a good thing."
– Oscar Wilde
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93
Response to Intervention
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007).
Writing next: Effective strategies
to improve writing of adolescents
in middle and high schools – A
report to Carnegie Corporation of
New York. Washington, DC
Alliance for Excellent Education.
Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/
WritingNext.pdf
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Response to Intervention
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an Independent Activity
“Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed [for the Writing Next
report] involved the explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
speech and structure of sentences. The meta-analysis found an
effect for this type of instruction for students across the full range of
ability, but …surprisingly, this effect was negative…Such findings
raise serious questions about some educators’ enthusiasm for
traditional grammar instruction as a focus of writing instruction for
adolescents….Overall, the findings on grammar instruction suggest
that, although teaching grammar is important, alternative procedures,
such as sentence combining, are more effective than traditional
approaches for improving the quality of students’ writing.” p. 21
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
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Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writing instruction for adolescents:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Writing Process (Effect Size = 0.82): Students are taught a process
for planning, revising, and editing.
Summarizing (Effect Size = 0.82): Students are taught methods to
identify key points, main ideas from readings to write summaries of
source texts.
Cooperative Learning Activities (‘Collaborative Writing’) (Effect
Size = 0.75): Students are placed in pairs or groups with learning
activities that focus on collaborative use of the writing process.
Goal-Setting (Effect Size = 0.70): Students set specific ‘product
goals’ for their writing and then check their attainment of those selfgenerated goals.
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writing instruction for adolescents:
5.
6.
7.
8.
Writing Processors (Effect Size = 0.55): Students have access to
computers/word processors in the writing process.
Sentence Combining (Effect Size = 0.50): Students take part in
instructional activities that require the combination or embedding of
simpler sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate more
advanced, complex sentences.
Prewriting (Effect Size = 0.32): Students learn to select, develop, or
organize ideas to incorporate into their writing by participating in
structured ‘pre-writing’ activities.
Inquiry Activities (Effect Size = 0.32): Students become actively
engaged researchers, collecting and analyzing information to guide the
ideas and content for writing assignments.
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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Response to Intervention
Elements of effective writing instruction for adolescents:
9.
Process Writing (Effect Size = 0.32): Writing instruction is taught in a
‘workshop’ format that “ stresses extended writing opportunities, writing
for authentic audiences, personalized instruction, and cycles of writing”
(Graham & Perin, 2007; p. 4).
10. Use of Writing Models (Effect Size = 0.25): Students read and
discuss models of good writing and use them as exemplars for their
own writing.
11. Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size = 0.23): The instructor
incorporates writing activities as a means to have students learn
content material.
Source: Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high
schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from
http://www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
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Response to Intervention
"The difference between the
right word and the almost right
word is the difference between
lightning and the lightning bug."
– Mark Twain
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99
Response to Intervention
"Your manuscript is both good
and original. But the part that is
good is not original, and the part
that is original is not good."
– Samuel Johnson
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Response to Intervention
Sentence Combining
Students with poor writing skills often write sentences that lack
‘syntactic maturity’. Their sentences often follow a simple,
stereotyped format. A promising approach to teach students use of
diverse sentence structures is through sentence combining.
In sentence combining, students are presented with kernel sentences
and given explicit instruction in how to weld these kernel sentences
into more diverse sentence types either
– by using connecting words to combine multiple sentences into
one or
– by isolating key information from an otherwise superfluous
sentence and embedding that important information into the base
sentence.
Sources: Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining: A sentence-level writing intervention. The Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471.
Strong, W. (1986). Creative approaches to sentence combining. Urbana, OL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill & National Council of Teachers of English.
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Response to Intervention
Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
3. Math
Instruction &
Interventions
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Response to Intervention
National Mathematics
Advisory Panel Report
13 March 2008
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111
Response to Intervention
Math Advisory Panel Report at:
http://www.ed.gov/mathpanel
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Response to Intervention
2008 National Math Advisory Panel Report: Recommendations
• “The areas to be studied in mathematics from pre-kindergarten through
eighth grade should be streamlined and a well-defined set of the most
important topics should be emphasized in the early grades. Any approach
that revisits topics year after year without bringing them to closure should
be avoided.”
• “Proficiency with whole numbers, fractions, and certain aspects of geometry
and measurement are the foundations for algebra. Of these, knowledge of
fractions is the most important foundational skill not developed among
American students.”
• “Conceptual understanding, computational and procedural fluency, and
problem solving skills are equally important and mutually reinforce each
other. Debates regarding the relative importance of each of these
components of mathematics are misguided.”
• “Students should develop immediate recall of arithmetic facts to free the
“working memory” for solving more complex problems.”
Source: National Math Panel Fact Sheet. (March 2008). Retrieved on March 14, 2008, from
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-factsheet.html
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Response to Intervention
An RTI Challenge: Limited Research to Support
Evidence-Based Math Interventions
“… in contrast to reading, core math programs that are
supported by research, or that have been constructed
according to clear research-based principles, are not
easy to identify. Not only have exemplary core
programs not been identified, but also there are no
tools available that we know of that will help schools
analyze core math programs to determine their
alignment with clear research-based principles.” p. 459
Source: Clarke, B., Baker, S., & Chard, D. (2008). Best practices in mathematics assessment and intervention with elementary
students. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 453-463).
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Response to Intervention
Profile of Students With Significant Math Difficulties
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Spatial organization. The student commits errors such as misaligning numbers in columns
in a multiplication problem or confusing directionality in a subtraction problem (and
subtracting the original number—minuend—from the figure to be subtracted (subtrahend).
Visual detail. The student misreads a mathematical sign or leaves out a decimal or dollar
sign in the answer.
Procedural errors. The student skips or adds a step in a computation sequence. Or the
student misapplies a learned rule from one arithmetic procedure when completing another,
different arithmetic procedure.
Inability to ‘shift psychological set’. The student does not shift from one operation type
(e.g., addition) to another (e.g., multiplication) when warranted.
Graphomotor. The student’s poor handwriting can cause him or her to misread
handwritten numbers, leading to errors in computation.
Memory. The student fails to remember a specific math fact needed to solve a problem.
(The student may KNOW the math fact but not be able to recall it at ‘point of performance’.)
Judgment and reasoning. The student comes up with solutions to problems that are
clearly unreasonable. However, the student is not able adequately to evaluate those
responses to gauge whether they actually make sense in context.
Source: Rourke, B. P. (1993). Arithmetic disabilities, specific & otherwise: A neuropsychological perspective. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 26, 214-226.
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Response to Intervention
Who is At Risk for Poor Math Performance?: A
Proactive Stance
“…we use the term mathematics difficulties rather than
mathematics disabilities. Children who exhibit
mathematics difficulties include those performing in the
low average range (e.g., at or below the 35th percentile)
as well as those performing well below average…Using
higher percentile cutoffs increases the likelihood that
young children who go on to have serious math
problems will be picked up in the screening.” p. 295
Source: Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early identification and interventions for students with mathematics
difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293-304.
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Response to Intervention
Profile of Students with Math Difficulties
(Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)
[Although the group of students with
difficulties in learning math is very
heterogeneous], in general, these students
have memory deficits leading to difficulties
in the acquisition and remembering of math knowledge.
Moreover, they often show inadequate use of strategies
for solving math tasks, caused by problems with the
acquisition and the application of both cognitive and
metacognitive strategies.
Because of these problems, they also show deficits in
generalization and transfer of learned knowledge to new
and unknown tasks.
Source: Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for children with special educational needs.
Remedial and Special Education, 24, 97-114..
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Response to Intervention
The Elements of Mathematical
Proficiency: What the Experts Say…
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Response to Intervention
5 Strands of Mathematical
Proficiency
5 Big Ideas in Beginning
Reading
1. Understanding
1. Phonemic Awareness
2. Computing
2. Alphabetic Principle
3. Applying
3. Fluency with Text
4. Reasoning
4. Vocabulary
5. Engagement
5. Comprehension
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping
children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for
Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences
and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Source: Big ideas in beginning reading.
University of Oregon. Retrieved September 23,
2007, from http://reading.uoregon.edu/index.php
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Response to Intervention
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency
1.
Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts,
operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical
symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.
2.
Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such
as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers
flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately.
3.
Applying: Being able to formulate problems
mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them
using concepts and procedures appropriately.
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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Response to Intervention
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (Cont.)
4.
Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to
a problem or to extend from something known to
something less known.
5.
Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and
doable—if you work at it—and being willing to do the
work.
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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Response to Intervention
Table Activity: Evaluate Your
School’s Math
Proficiency…
•
•
•
•
As a group, review the
National Research
Council ‘Strands of Math
Proficiency’.
Which strand do you feel
that your school /
curriculum does the best
job of helping students to
attain proficiency?
Which strand do you feel
that your school /
curriculum should put the
greatest effort to figure
out how to help students
to attain proficiency?
Be prepared to share
your results.
Five Strands of Mathematical
Proficiency (NRC, 2002)
1.
Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts,
operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical
symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.
2.
Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such
as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers
flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately.
3.
Applying: Being able to formulate problems
mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them
using concepts and procedures appropriately.
4.
Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to
a problem or to extend from something known to something
less known.
5.
Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and
doable—if you work at it—and being willing to do the work.
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Response to Intervention
Three General Levels of Math Skill Development
(Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003)
As students move from lower to higher grades, they move through
levels of acquisition of math skills, to include:
• Number sense
• Basic math operations (i.e., addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division)
• Problem-solving skills: “The solution of both verbal
and nonverbal problems through the application of previously
acquired information” (Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003, p. 98)
Source: Kroesbergen, E., & Van Luit, J. E. H. (2003). Mathematics interventions for children with special educational needs.
Remedial and Special Education, 24, 97-114..
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Response to Intervention
Development of ‘Number Sense’
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Response to Intervention
What is ‘Number Sense’?
(Clarke & Shinn, 2004)
“… the ability to understand the meaning of
numbers and define different relationships among
numbers.
Children with number sense can recognize the
relative size of numbers, use referents for
measuring objects and events, and think and work
with numbers in a flexible manner that treats
numbers as a sensible system.” p. 236
Source: Clarke, B., & Shinn, M. (2004). A preliminary investigation into the identification and development of early mathematics
curriculum-based measurement. School Psychology Review, 33, 234–248.
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Response to Intervention
What Are Stages of ‘Number
Sense’?
(Berch, 2005, p. 336)
1.
2.
Innate Number Sense. Children appear to possess ‘hardwired’ ability (neurological ‘foundation structures’) to acquire
number sense. Children’s innate capabilities appear also to
include the ability to ‘represent general amounts’, not specific
quantities. This innate number sense seems to be
characterized by skills at estimation (‘approximate numerical
judgments’) and a counting system that can be described
loosely as ‘1, 2, 3, 4, … a lot’.
Acquired Number Sense. Young students learn through
indirect and direct instruction to count specific objects beyond
four and to internalize a number line as a mental representation
of those precise number values.
Source: Berch, D. B. (2005). Making sense of number sense: Implications for children with mathematical disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 38, 333-339...
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Response to Intervention
Task Analysis of Number Sense & Operations
(Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008)
“Knowing the fundamental subject matter of early mathematics is
critical, given the relatively young stage of its development and
application…, as well as the large numbers of students at risk for
failure in mathematics. Evidence from the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study confirms the Matthew effect phenomenon, where
students with early skills continue to prosper over the course of their
education while children who struggle at kindergarten entry tend to
experience great degrees of problems in mathematics. Given that
assessment is the core of effective problem solving in foundational
subject matter, much less is known about the specific building blocks
and pinpoint subskills that lead to a numeric literacy, early numeracy,
or number sense…” p. 30
Source: Methe, S. A., & Riley-Tillman, T. C. (2008). An informed approach to selecting and designing early mathematics
interventions. School Psychology Forum: Research into Practice, 2, 29-41.
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127
Response to Intervention
Task Analysis of Number Sense & Operations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008)
Counting
Comparing and Ordering: Ability to compare relative amounts
e.g., more or less than; ordinal numbers: e.g., first, second, third)
Equal partitioning: Dividing larger set of objects into ‘equal parts’
Composing and decomposing: Able to create different
subgroupings of larger sets (for example, stating that a group of 10
objects can be broken down into 6 objects and 4 objects or 3
objects and 7 objects)
Grouping and place value: “abstractly grouping objects into sets
of 10” (p. 32) in base-10 counting system.
Adding to/taking away: Ability to add and subtract amounts from
sets “by using accurate strategies that do not rely on laborious
enumeration, counting, or equal partitioning.” P. 32
Source: Methe, S. A., & Riley-Tillman, T. C. (2008). An informed approach to selecting and designing early mathematics
interventions. School Psychology Forum: Research into Practice, 2, 29-41.
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Response to Intervention
Children’s Understanding of Counting Rules
The development of children’s counting ability depends upon the
development of:
•
•
•
•
•
One-to-one correspondence: “one and only one word tag, e.g.,
‘one,’ ‘two,’ is assigned to each counted object”.
Stable order: “the order of the word tags must be invariant
across counted sets”.
Cardinality: “the value of the final word tag represents the
quantity of items in the counted set”.
Abstraction: “objects of any kind can be collected together and
counted”.
Order irrelevance: “items within a given set can be tagged in
any sequence”.
Source: Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 4-15.
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129
Response to Intervention
Math Computation: Building
Fluency
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Benefits of Automaticity of ‘Arithmetic Combinations’
(Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005)
• There is a strong correlation between poor retrieval of
arithmetic combinations (‘math facts’) and global math
delays
• Automatic recall of arithmetic combinations frees up
student ‘cognitive capacity’ to allow for understanding of
higher-level problem-solving
• By internalizing numbers as mental constructs, students
can manipulate those numbers in their head, allowing for
the intuitive understanding of arithmetic properties, such
as associative property and commutative property
Source: Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early identification and interventions for students with mathematics
difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 293-304.
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131
Response to Intervention
How Do We Reach Low-Performing Math
Students?: Instructional Recommendations
Important elements of math instruction for low-performing
students:
–
–
–
–
“Providing teachers and students with data on student
performance”
“Using peers as tutors or instructional guides”
“Providing clear, specific feedback to parents on their children’s
mathematics success”
“Using principles of explicit instruction in teaching math
concepts and procedures.” p. 51
Source: Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Lee, D. (2002).A synthesis of empirical research on teaching mathematics to lowachieving students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1), 51-73..
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133
Response to Intervention
Team Activity: How Do Schools Implement Strategies to Reach LowPerforming Math Students?
At your table, review the instructional recommendations
(Baker et al., 2002) for low-performing math students. How
can your school promote implementation of these
recommendations?
1. “Providing teachers and students with data on
student performance”
2. “Using peers as tutors or instructional guides”
3. “Providing clear, specific feedback to parents on
their children’s mathematics success”
4. “Using principles of explicit instruction in teaching
math concepts and procedures.”
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Learn Unit p. 3 (Heward, 1996)
The three essential elements of effective student learning include:
1. Academic Opportunity to Respond. The student is presented with
a meaningful opportunity to respond to an academic task. A question posed by
the teacher, a math word problem, and a spelling item on an educational computer
‘Word Gobbler’ game could all be considered academic opportunities to respond.
2. Active Student Response. The student answers the item, solves the problem
presented, or completes the academic task. Answering the teacher’s question,
computing the answer to a math word problem (and showing all work), and typing
in the correct spelling of an item when playing an educational computer game are
all examples of active student responding.
3. Performance Feedback. The student receives timely feedback about whether his
or her response is correct—often with praise and encouragement. A teacher
exclaiming ‘Right! Good job!’ when a student gives an response in class, a student
using an answer key to check her answer to a math word problem, and a
computer message that says ‘Congratulations! You get 2 points for correctly
spelling this word!” are all examples of performance feedback.
Source: Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group
instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi (Eds.), Behavior
analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
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135
Response to Intervention
Math Intervention: Tier I or II: Elementary & Secondary:
Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills With Performance
Self-Monitoring & Incentives (p. 55)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The student is given a math computation worksheet of a specific problem type, along with
an answer key [Academic Opportunity to Respond].
The student consults his or her performance chart and notes previous performance. The
student is encouraged to try to ‘beat’ his or her most recent score.
The student is given a pre-selected amount of time (e.g., 5 minutes) to complete as many
problems as possible. The student sets a timer and works on the computation sheet until
the timer rings. [Active Student Responding]
The student checks his or her work, giving credit for each correct digit (digit of correct
value appearing in the correct place-position in the answer). [Performance Feedback]
The student records the day’s score of TOTAL number of correct digits on his or her
personal performance chart.
The student receives praise or a reward if he or she exceeds the most recently posted
number of correct digits.
Application of ‘Learn Unit’ framework from : Heward, W.L. (1996). Three low-tech strategies for increasing the frequency of active student
response during group instruction. In R. Gardner, D. M.S ainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman,& T. A. Grossi
(Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp.283-320). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
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136
Response to Intervention
Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills:
Examples of Student Worksheet and Answer Key
Worksheets created using Math Worksheet Generator. Available online at:
http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/tools/mathprobe/addsing.php
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137
Response to Intervention
Self-Administered Arithmetic Combination Drills…
Reward Given
Reward Given
Reward Given
Reward Given
No Reward
No Reward
No Reward
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138
Response to Intervention
Cover-Copy-Compare:
Math Computational Fluency-Building Intervention
The student is given sheet with correctly completed
math problems in left column and index card.
For each problem, the student:
–
–
–
–
–
studies the model
covers the model with index card
copies the problem from memory
solves the problem
uncovers the correctly completed model to check answer
Source: Skinner, C.H., Turco, T.L., Beatty, K.L., & Rasavage, C. (1989). Cover, copy, and compare: A method for increasing
multiplication performance. School Psychology Review, 18, 412-420.
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139
Response to Intervention
Math Computation: Problem Interspersal Technique p. 50
• The teacher first identifies the range of ‘challenging’ problem-types
(number problems appropriately matched to the student’s current
instructional level) that are to appear on the worksheet.
• Then the teacher creates a series of ‘easy’ problems that the
students can complete very quickly (e.g., adding or subtracting two 1digit numbers). The teacher next prepares a series of student math
computation worksheets with ‘easy’ computation problems
interspersed at a fixed rate among the ‘challenging’ problems.
• If the student is expected to complete the worksheet independently,
‘challenging’ and ‘easy’ problems should be interspersed at a 1:1
ratio (that is, every ‘challenging’ problem in the worksheet is preceded
and/or followed by an ‘easy’ problem).
• If the student is to have the problems read aloud and then asked to
solve the problems mentally and write down only the answer, the
items should appear on the worksheet at a ratio of 3 ‘challenging’
problems for every ‘easy’ one (that is, every 3 ‘challenging’ problems
are preceded and/or followed by an ‘easy’ one).
Source: Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., & Oliver, R. (2005). The effects of task demands and additive interspersal ratios on fifthgrade students’ mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review, 34, 543-555..
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140
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math
Computation with
Constant Time Delay
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Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant
Time Delay
• DESCRIPTION: This intervention employs students as reciprocal
peer tutors to target acquisition of basic math facts (math
computation) using constant time delay (Menesses & Gresham,
2009; Telecsan, Slaton, & Stevens, 1999). Each tutoring
‘session’ is brief and includes its own progress-monitoring
component--making this a convenient and time-efficient math
intervention for busy classrooms.
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142
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant
Time Delay
MATERIALS:
Student Packet: A work folder is created for each tutor pair. The
folder contains:
 10 math fact cards with equations written on the front and correct
answer appearing on the back. NOTE: The set of cards is
replenished and updated regularly as tutoring pairs master their
math facts.
 Progress-monitoring form for each student.
 Pencils.
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143
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant Time Delay
PREPARATION: To prepare for the tutoring program, the teacher
selects students to participate and trains them to serve as tutors.
Select Student Participants. Students being considered for the
reciprocal peer tutor program should at minimum meet these
criteria (Telecsan, Slaton, & Stevens, 1999, Menesses &
Gresham, 2009):
Is able and willing to follow directions;
Shows generally appropriate classroom behavior;
Can attend to a lesson or learning activity for at least 20
minutes.
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144
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant Time Delay
Select Student Participants (Cont.). Students being considered for the
reciprocal peer tutor program should at minimum meet these criteria
(Telecsan, Slaton, & Stevens, 1999, Menesses & Gresham, 2009):
 Is able to name all numbers from 0 to 18 (if tutoring in addition or
subtraction math facts) and name all numbers from 0 to 81 (if tutoring in
multiplication or division math facts).
• Can correctly read aloud a sampling of 10 math-facts (equation plus
answer) that will be used in the tutoring sessions. (NOTE: The student
does not need to have memorized or otherwise mastered these math
facts to participate—just be able to read them aloud from cards without
errors).
• [To document a deficit in math computation] When given a two-minute
math computation probe to complete independently, computes fewer
than 20 correct digits (Grades 1-3) or fewer than 40 correct digits
(Grades 4 and up) (Deno & Mirkin, 1977).
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145
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math
Computation: Teacher
Nomination Form
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146
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant Time Delay
Tutoring Activity. Each tutoring ‘session’ last for 3 minutes. The tutor:
– Presents Cards. The tutor presents each card to the tutee for 3
seconds.
– Provides Tutor Feedback. [When the tutee responds correctly] The
tutor acknowledges the correct answer and presents the next card.
[When the tutee does not respond within 3 seconds or responds
incorrectly] The tutor states the correct answer and has the tutee
repeat the correct answer. The tutor then presents the next card.
– Provides Praise. The tutor praises the tutee immediately following
correct answers.
– Shuffles Cards. When the tutor and tutee have reviewed all of the
math-fact carts, the tutor shuffles them before again presenting
cards.
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147
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant Time Delay
Progress-Monitoring Activity. The tutor concludes each 3-minute tutoring
session by assessing the number of math facts mastered by the tutee.
The tutor follows this sequence:
– Presents Cards. The tutor presents each card to the tutee for 3
seconds.
– Remains Silent. The tutor does not provide performance feedback
or praise to the tutee, or otherwise talk during the assessment
phase.
– Sorts Cards. Based on the tutee’s responses, the tutor sorts the
math-fact cards into ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ piles.
– Counts Cards and Records Totals. The tutor counts the number of
cards in the ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ piles and records the totals on
the tutee’s progress-monitoring chart.
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148
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with Constant Time Delay
Tutoring Integrity Checks. As the student pairs complete the tutoring
activities, the supervising adult monitors the integrity with which the
intervention is carried out. At the conclusion of the tutoring session, the
adult gives feedback to the student pairs, praising successful
implementation and providing corrective feedback to students as
needed. NOTE: Teachers can use the attached form Peer Tutoring in
Math Computation with Constant Time Delay: Integrity Checklist to
conduct integrity checks of the intervention and student progressmonitoring components of the math peer tutoring.
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149
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in
Math
Computation:
Intervention
Integrity Sheet:
(Part 1:
Tutoring
Activity)
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150
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in
Math
Computation:
Intervention
Integrity Sheet
(Part 2:
ProgressMonitoring)
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151
Response to Intervention
Peer Tutoring in
Math
Computation:
Score Sheet
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152
Response to Intervention
Team Activity: Peer Tutoring in Math Computation with
Constant Time Delay
Elementary Groups: At your table:
•
Discuss how you might use or adapt this math computation
tutoring intervention in your school.
Secondary Groups: At your table:
•
Discuss the concept of ‘math computation fluency’. How
important is it to provide students in interventions in this skill?
How might your school deliver math computation
interventions?
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Response to Intervention
Additional Math Interventions
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
www.interventioncentral.org
Response to Intervention
Math Review: Incremental Rehearsal of ‘Math Facts’ p. 48
Step 1: The tutor writes
down on a series of index
cards the math facts that the
student needs to learn. The
problems are written without
the answers.
4 x 5 =__
2 x 6 =__
5 x 5 =__
3 x 2 =__
3 x 8 =__
5 x 3 =__
6 x 5 =__
9 x 2 =__
3 x 6 =__
8 x 2 =__
4 x 7 =__
8 x 4 =__
9 x 7 =__
7 x 6 =__
3 x 5 =__
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155
Response to Intervention
Math Review: Incremental Rehearsal of ‘Math Facts’
Step 2: The tutor reviews
the ‘math fact’ cards with
the student. Any card
that the student can
answer within 2 seconds
is sorted into the
‘KNOWN’ pile. Any card
that the student cannot
answer within two
seconds—or answers
incorrectly—is sorted into
the ‘UNKNOWN’ pile.
‘KNOWN’ Facts
‘UNKNOWN’ Facts
4 x 5 =__
2 x 6 =__
3 x 8 =__
3 x 2 =__
5 x 3 =__
9 x 2 =__
3 x 6 =__
8 x 4 =__
5 x 5 =__
6 x 5 =__
4 x 7 =__
8 x 2 =__
9 x 7 =__
7 x 6 =__
3 x 5 =__
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156
Response to Intervention
Math Review: Incremental Rehearsal of ‘Math Facts’
Step 3: The
Nexttutor
the tutor
is now
then
takes
repeats
ready
a math
the
to follow
sequence--adding
fact afrom
nine-step
the ‘known’
incremental-rehearsal
yet another
pile and known
pairs it with
the
sequence:
problem
unknown
to First,
theproblem.
growing
the tutor
When
deck
presents
of
shown
index
the
each
cards
student
ofbeing
thewith
two
reviewed
aproblems,
single and
index
the
each
card
student
time is
asked
containing
prompting
to read
the
an ‘unknown’
off
student
the problem
to math
answer
and
fact.
the
answer
The
whole
tutor
it.series
readsofthe
math
problem
facts—until
aloud,the
gives
the answer,
review
deck then
contains
prompts
a total
theofstudent
one ‘unknown’
to read off
math
thefact
same
andunknown
nine ‘known’
problem
math
and provide
facts
(a ratiothe
of 90
correct
percent
answer.
‘known’ to 10 percent ‘unknown’ material )
3 x 8 =__
4 x 5 =__
2 x 6 =__
3 x 2 =__
3 x 6 =__
5 x 3 =__
8 x 4 =__
6 x 5 =__
4 x 7 =__
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157
Response to Intervention
Math Review: Incremental Rehearsal of ‘Math Facts’
Step 4: At
Thethis
student
point, isthethen
lastpresented
‘known’ math
with fact
a new
that‘unknown’
had beenmath
added
fact
to to
the
answer--and
student’s
review
the deck
reviewis sequence
discarded is(placed
once again
back into
repeated
the original
each time
pile of
until
‘known’
the
‘unknown’ math
problems)
and the
factpreviously
is grouped
‘unknown’
with ninemath
‘known’
factmath
is now
facts—and
treated asonthe
and
firston.
Daily review
‘known’
mathsessions
fact in new
arestudent
discontinued
revieweither
deck when
for future
timedrills.
runs out or when the
student answers an ‘unknown’ math fact incorrectly three times.
9 x 2 =__
34 xx 85 =__
=__
42 xx 56 =__
=__
32 x 26 =__
3 x 62 =__
35 xx 63 =__
=__
85 x 43 =__
68 x 54 =__
64 xx 57 =__
=__
3 x 8 =__
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158
Response to Intervention
Interpreting Math Graphics: A Reading
Comprehension Intervention p. 52
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Response to Intervention
Housing
Bubble
Graphic:
New York Times
23 September 2007
Housing Price
Index = 171 in
2005
Housing Price
Index = 100 in
1987
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160
Response to Intervention
Classroom Challenges in Interpreting Math Graphics
When encountering math graphics, students may :
•
•
•
•
•
expect the answer to be easily accessible when in fact the
graphic may expect the reader to interpret and draw
conclusions
be inattentive to details of the graphic
treat irrelevant data as ‘relevant’
not pay close attention to questions before turning to
graphics to find the answer
fail to use their prior knowledge both to extend the
information on the graphic and to act as a possible ‘check’
on the information that it presents.
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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161
Response to Intervention
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret
Information from Math Graphics
Students can be more savvy interpreters of graphics in
applied math problems by applying the Question-Answer
Relationship (QAR) strategy. Four Kinds of QAR Questions:
•
•
•
•
RIGHT THERE questions are fact-based and can be found in a single sentence, often
accompanied by 'clue' words that also appear in the question.
THINK AND SEARCH questions can be answered by information in the text but
require the scanning of text and making connections between different pieces of
factual information.
AUTHOR AND YOU questions require that students take information or opinions that
appear in the text and combine them with the reader's own experiences or opinions to
formulate an answer.
ON MY OWN questions are based on the students' own experiences and do not
require knowledge of the text to answer.
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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162
Response to Intervention
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret
Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence
1.
DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHICS. Students
are taught to differentiate between common types of graphics: e.g.,
table (grid with information contained in cells), chart (boxes with
possible connecting lines or arrows), picture (figure with labels), line
graph, bar graph.
Students note significant differences between the various graphics,
while the teacher records those observations on a wall chart. Next
students are given examples of graphics and asked to identify which
general kind of graphic each is.
Finally, students are assigned to go on a ‘graphics hunt’, locating
graphics in magazines and newspapers, labeling them, and bringing
to class to review.
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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163
Response to Intervention
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret
Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence
2.
INTERPRETING INFORMATION IN GRAPHICS. Students are
paired off, with stronger students matched with less strong ones. The
teacher spends at least one session presenting students with
examples from each of the graphics categories.
The presentation sequence is ordered so that students begin with
examples of the most concrete graphics and move toward the more
abstract: Pictures > tables > bar graphs > charts > line graphs.
At each session, student pairs examine graphics and discuss
questions such as: “What information does this graphic present?
What are strengths of this graphic for presenting data? What are
possible weaknesses?”
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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164
Response to Intervention
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret
Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence
3.
LINKING THE USE OF QARS TO GRAPHICS. Students are given a
series of data questions and correct answers, with each question
accompanied by a graphic that contains information needed to
formulate the answer.
Students are also each given index cards with titles and descriptions
of each of the 4 QAR questions: RIGHT THERE, THINK AND
SEARCH, AUTHOR AND YOU, ON MY OWN.
Working in small groups and then individually, students read the
questions, study the matching graphics, and ‘verify’ the answers as
correct. They then identify the type question being asked using their
QAR index cards.
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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165
Response to Intervention
Using Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) to Interpret
Information from Math Graphics: 4-Step Teaching Sequence
4.
USING QARS WITH GRAPHICS INDEPENDENTLY. When students
are ready to use the QAR strategy independently to read graphics,
they are given a laminated card as a reference with 6 steps to follow:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Read the question,
Review the graphic,
Reread the question,
Choose a QAR,
Answer the question, and
Locate the answer derived from the graphic in the answer choices offered.
Students are strongly encouraged NOT to read the answer choices
offered until they have first derived their own answer, so that those
choices don’t short-circuit their inquiry.
Source: Mesmer, H.A.E., & Hutchins, E.J. (2002). Using QARs with charts and graphs. The Reading Teacher, 56, 21–27.
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166
Response to Intervention
Developing Student
Metacognitive Abilities
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Response to Intervention
Importance of Metacognitive Strategy Use…
“Metacognitive processes focus on self-awareness
of cognitive knowledge that is presumed to be
necessary for effective problem solving, and they
direct and regulate cognitive processes and
strategies during problem solving…That is,
successful problem solvers, consciously or
unconsciously (depending on task demands), use
self-instruction, self-questioning, and self-monitoring
to gain access to strategic knowledge, guide
execution of strategies, and regulate use of
strategies and problem-solving performance.” p. 231
Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem
solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
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168
Response to Intervention
Elements of Metacognitive Processes
“Self-instruction helps students to identify and
direct the problem-solving strategies prior to
execution. Self-questioning promotes internal
dialogue for systematically analyzing problem
information and regulating execution of cognitive
strategies. Self-monitoring promotes appropriate
use of specific strategies and encourages students
to monitor general performance. [Emphasis added].”
p. 231
Source: Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on the mathematical problem
solving of middle school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230-248.
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169
Response to Intervention
Combining Cognitive & Metacognitive Strategies to Assist
Students With Mathematical Problem Solving p. 57
Solving an advanced math problem independently
requires the coordination of a number of complex skills.
The following strategies combine both cognitive and
metacognitive elements (Montague, 1992; Montague &
Dietz, 2009). First, the student is taught a 7-step
process for attacking a math word problem (cognitive
strategy). Second, the instructor trains the student to
use a three-part self-coaching routine for each of the
seven problem-solving steps (metacognitive strategy).
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170
Response to Intervention
Cognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach
In the cognitive part of this multi-strategy intervention, the student learns an explicit series
of steps to analyze and solve a math problem. Those steps include:
1. Reading the problem. The student reads the problem carefully, noting and attempting
to clear up any areas of uncertainly or confusion (e.g., unknown vocabulary terms).
2. Paraphrasing the problem. The student restates the problem in his or her own words.
3. ‘Drawing’ the problem. The student creates a drawing of the problem, creating a
visual representation of the word problem.
4. Creating a plan to solve the problem. The student decides on the best way to solve
the problem and develops a plan to do so.
5. Predicting/Estimating the answer. The student estimates or predicts what the answer
to the problem will be. The student may compute a quick approximation of the answer,
using rounding or other shortcuts.
6. Computing the answer. The student follows the plan developed earlier to compute the
answer to the problem.
7. Checking the answer. The student methodically checks the calculations for each step
of the problem. The student also compares the actual answer to the estimated answer
calculated in a previous step to ensure that there is general agreement between the two
values.
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Response to Intervention
Metacognitive Portion of Combined Problem Solving Approach
The metacognitive component of the intervention is a threepart routine that follows a sequence of ‘Say’, ‘Ask, ‘Check’. For
each of the 7 problem-solving steps reviewed above:
• The student first self-instructs by stating, or ‘saying’, the
purpose of the step (‘Say’).
• The student next self-questions by ‘asking’ what he or she
intends to do to complete the step (‘Ask’).
• The student concludes the step by self-monitoring, or
‘checking’, the successful completion of the step (‘Check’).
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Combined Cognitive & Metacognitive Elements of
Strategy
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Response to Intervention
Applied Problems: Pop Quiz
7-Step Problem-Solving:Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Reading the problem.
Paraphrasing the
problem.
‘Drawing’ the
problem.
Creating a plan to
solve the problem.
Predicting/Estimating the answer.
Computing the
answer.
Checking the answer.
Q:
“To move their
theread
Romans
over
Directions:
Asarmies,
a team,
the built
following
50,000 miles of roads. Imagine driving all those miles!
problem.
Atdriving
your tables,
apply
thefirst
7-step
Now
imagine
those miles
in the
gasolineproblem-solving
(cognitive)
strategy
to
driven car that has only three wheels and could reach
problem.
As per
youhour.
complete each
acomplete
top speedthe
of about
10 miles
stepsafety's
of thesake,
problem,
apply
thea‘Say-AskFor
let's bring
along
spare tire. As
Check’
Tryspare
to with
you
drivemetacognitive
the 50,000 miles,sequence.
you rotate the
the
other tires
that all7four
tireswithin
get thethe
same
complete
thesoentire
steps
time
amount
of wear.
Canexercise.
you figure out how many miles
allocated
for this
of wear each tire accumulates?”
A: “Since the four wheels of the three-wheeled car
share the journey equally, simply take
three-fourths of the total distance (50,000
miles) and you'll get 37,500 miles for each tire.”
Source: The Math Forum @ Drexel: Critical Thinking Puzzles/Spare My Brain. Retrieved from
http://mathforum.org/k12/k12puzzles/critical.thinking/puzz2.html
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Response to Intervention
Defining Goals & Challenges in
Applied Math
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Response to Intervention
Potential ‘Blockers’ of Higher-Level Math Problem-Solving:
A Sampler
 Limited reading skills
 Failure to master--or develop automaticity in– basic math operations
 Lack of knowledge of specialized math vocabulary (e.g., ‘quotient’)
 Lack of familiarity with the specialized use of known words (e.g.,
‘product’)
 Inability to interpret specialized math symbols
(e.g., ‘4 < 2’)
 Difficulty ‘extracting’ underlying math operations from word/story
problems
 Difficulty identifying and ignoring extraneous information included in
word/story problems
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Response to Intervention
Math Intervention Ideas for
Higher-Level Math Problems
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Applied Problems
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Response to Intervention
Applied Math Problems: Rationale
• Applied math problems (also known as ‘story’ or
‘word’ problems) are traditional tools for having
students apply math concepts and operations to
‘real-world’ settings.
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Response to Intervention
Applied Problems: Encourage Students to ‘Draw’ the Problem
Making a drawing of an applied, or ‘word’, problem is one easy
heuristic tool that students can use to help them to find the solution
and clarify misunderstandings.
• The teacher hands out a worksheet containing at least six word
problems. The teacher explains to students that making a picture of a
word problem sometimes makes that problem clearer and easier to
solve.
• The teacher and students then independently create drawings of
each of the problems on the worksheet. Next, the students show their
drawings for each problem, explaining each drawing and how it
relates to the word problem. The teacher also participates, explaining
his or her drawings to the class or group.
• Then students are directed independently to make drawings as an
intermediate problem-solving step when they are faced with
challenging word problems. NOTE: This strategy appears to be more
effective when used in later, rather than earlier, elementary grades.
Source: Hawkins, J., Skinner, C. H., & Oliver, R. (2005). The effects of task demands and additive interspersal ratios on fifthgrade students’ mathematics accuracy. School Psychology Review, 34, 543-555..
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Response to Intervention
Applied Problems: Individualized Self-Correction Checklists
Students can improve their accuracy on particular types of word and number
problems by using an ‘individualized self-instruction checklist’ that reminds them to
pay attention to their own specific error patterns.
•
•
•
The teacher meets with the student. Together they analyze common error patterns
that the student tends to commit on a particular problem type (e.g., ‘On addition
problems that require carrying, I don’t always remember to carry the number from
the previously added column.’).
For each type of error identified, the student and teacher together describe the
appropriate step to take to prevent the error from occurring (e.g., ‘When adding
each column, make sure to carry numbers when needed.’).
These self-check items are compiled into a single checklist. Students are then
encouraged to use their individualized self-instruction checklist whenever they work
independently on their number or word problems.
Source: Pólya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton University Press: Princeton, N.J.
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Response to Intervention
Secondary GroupBased Math
Intervention
Example
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Response to Intervention
‘Standard Protocol’ Group-Based Treatments:
Strengths & Limits in Secondary Settings
•
•
Research indicates that students do well in targeted
small-group interventions (4-6 students) when the
intervention ‘treatment’ is closely matched to those
students’ academic needs (Burns & Gibbons, 2008).
However, in secondary schools:
1.
2.
students are sometimes grouped for remediation by
convenience rather than by presenting need. Teachers instruct
across a broad range of student skills, diluting the positive
impact of the intervention.
students often present with a unique profile of concerns that
does not lend itself to placement in a group intervention.
Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools:
Procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge.
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Response to Intervention
Caution About Secondary Standard-Protocol (‘GroupBased’) Interventions: Avoid the ‘Homework Help’ Trap
• Group-based or standard-protocol interventions
are an efficient method for certified teachers to
deliver targeted academic support to students
(Burns & Gibbons, 2008).
• However, students should be matched to
specific research-based interventions that
address their specific needs.
• RTI intervention support in secondary schools
should not take the form of unfocused
‘homework help’.
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Response to Intervention
1.
2.
3.
Math Mentors: Training Students to Independently Use
On-Line Math-Help Resources
Math mentors are recruited (school personnel, adult volunteers,
student teachers, peer tutors) who have a good working knowledge of
algebra.
The school meets with each math mentor to verify mentor’s algebra
knowledge.
The school trains math mentors in 30-minute tutoring protocol, to
include:
A.
B.
C.
4.
Requiring that students keep a math journal detailing questions from notes and
homework.
Holding the student accountable to bring journal, questions to tutoring session.
Ensuring that a minimum of 25 minutes of 30 minute session are spent on
tutoring.
Mentors are introduced to online algebra resources (e.g.,
www.algebrahelp.com, www.math.com) and encouraged to browse
them and become familiar with the site content and navigation.
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Response to Intervention
Math Mentors: Training Students to Independently Use
On-Line Math-Help Resources
5.
Mentors are trained during ‘math mentor’ sessions to:
A.
B.
C.
6.
Examine student math journal
Answer student algebra questions
Direct the student to go online to algebra tutorial websites while mentor
supervises. Student is to find the section(s) of the websites that answer their
questions.
As the student shows increased confidence with algebra and with
navigation of the math-help websites, the mentor directs the student
to:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Note math homework questions in the math journal
Attempt to find answers independently on math-help websites
Note in the journal any successful or unsuccessful attempts to independently get
answers online
Bring journal and remaining questions to next mentoring meeting.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Key Workshop Content
1.
2.
Group Activity: RTI: Reading 3.
& Math: Next Steps
4.
At your tables:
5.
6.
• Review the content
discussed today in the
workshop.
• What are the key 2-3 next
steps that you plan to take
to make the best use of
these ideas and resources
in the coming school year?
Big ideas in academic interventions
Reading fluency strategies
Reading comprehension strategies
Math computation fluency strategies
Math word problem strategies
Internet resources (e.g., HELPS
program, Maze generator, math
worksheet generator, FL Center for
Reading Research, Free-Read.net)
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Secondary-Level Tier 1
Intervention: Case Examples
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Tier 1 Case Example: Patricia:
Reading Comprehension
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
The Problem
• A student, Patricia, struggled in her social studies class,
particularly in understanding the course readings. Her teacher,
Ms. Cardamone, decided that the problem was significant
enough that the student required some individualized support.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
The Evidence
• Student Interview. Ms. Cardamone met with Patricia to ask her
questions about her difficulties with social studies content and
assignments. Patricia said that when she reads the course text
and other assigned readings, she doesn’t have difficulty with
the vocabulary but often realizes after reading half a page that
she hasn’t really understood what she has read. Sometimes
she has to reread a page several times and that can be
frustrating.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
The Evidence (Cont.)
• Review of Records. Past teacher report card comments
suggest that Patricia has had difficulty with reading
comprehension tasks in earlier grades. She had received help
in middle school in the reading lab, although there was no
record of what specific interventions were tried in that setting.
• Input from Other Teachers. Ms. Cardamone checked with other
teachers who have Patricia in their classes. All expressed
concern about Patricia’s reading comprehension skills. The
English teacher noted that Patricia appears to have difficulty
pulling the main idea from a passage, which limits her ability to
extract key information from texts and to review that information
for tests.
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201
Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
The Intervention
• Ms. Cardamone decided, based on the evidence collected, that
Patricia would benefit from training in identifying the main idea
from a passage, rather than trying to retain all the information
presented in the text. She selected two simple interventions:
Question Generation and Text Lookback. She arranged to have
Patricia meet with her during an open period to review these
two strategies. During that meeting, Ms. Cardamone
demonstrated how to use these strategies effectively with the
social studies course text and other assigned readings.
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Response to Intervention
Question
Generation
Students are taught to boost
their comprehension of
expository passages by (1)
locating the main idea or key
ideas in the passage and (2)
generating questions based
on that information.
http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interventions/
rdngcompr/qgen.php
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Response to Intervention
Text
Lookback
Text lookback is a simple
strategy that students can
use to boost their recall of
expository prose by
identifying questions that
require information from the
text and then looking back in
the text in a methodical
manner to locate that
information.
http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interventions/
rdngcompr/txtlkbk.php
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
Documentation and Goal-Setting
• Ms Cardamone filled out a Tier 1 intervention plan for the
student. On the plan, she listed interventions to be used, a
checkup date (4 instructional weeks), and data to be used to
assess student progress.
• Data: Ms. Cardamone decided that she would rate the
student’s grasp of text content in two ways:
– Student self-rating (1-3 scale; 1=don’t understand; 3 = understand
well)
– Quiz grades.
• She collected baseline on both and set a goal for
improvement.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Reading Comprehension
The Outcome
• When the intervention had been in place for 4 weeks, Ms.
Cardamone noted that Patricia appeared to have a somewhat
better grasp of course content and expressed a greater
understanding of material from the text.
• She shared her intervention ideas with other teachers working
with Patricia. Because Patricia’s self-ratings of reading
comprehension and quiz grades met the goals after 4 weeks,
Ms. Cardamone decided to continue the intervention plan with
the student without changes.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas in Academic Interventions
1. Definition of terms: Core instruction,
intervention, accommodation,
Group Activity: Big Ideas in modification (with modifications to be
avoided on RTI plans)
Academic Interventions
2. Learners advance through predictable
At your tables:
stages: Acquisition, Fluency,
• Review the big ideas in
Generalization, Adaptation
academic interventions
3. Intervention as high-quality instruction is
research-based if it is correctly targeted,
presented in this workshop.
provides explicit instruction in the skill
• Select the ONE idea that
and an appropriate level of challenge,
you feel is most important
gives the student sufficient opportunities
for your teachers to
to respond to and practice the skill, and
understand and keep in
offers immediate feedback on
performance.
mind.
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Response to Intervention
Clearinghouse for RTI Tier 1-3 Programs
• The What Works Clearinghouse (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) is a
federally-sponsored website that lists research supporting various
Tier 1, 2, and 3 intervention programs.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Interventions: Activity
In your groups…
• Review the reading-related intervention ideas in your
handout.
1. Academic & Content-Area Vocabulary p. 12
2. Extended Classroom Discussion p. 20
3. Main Idea Maps p. 26
4. Mental Imagery p. 29
5. Activating the Known p.31
6. Question Generation p. 35
7. Text Lookback p. 37
• Select at least 1 idea that you think that your school
could use right away. What kind of classroom or
building preparation would be required?
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Finding the Right
Spark: Strategies for
Motivating the
Resistant Learner at
the Middle and High
School Levels
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Motivating Students: Agenda…
1. Understanding the Central Role that
Motivation Plays in Student Success
2. Defining ‘Motivation’ (and Related Behavioral
Principles )
3. Analyzing Why a Student Lacks Motivation and
Selecting Appropriate Strategies
4. Helping Teachers to Proactively Manage
Instruction and Behaviors to Optimize Student
Motivation
5. Motivating Teachers to Want to Use Motivating
Strategies With Students
6. Reviewing Additional Internet Resources
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Response to Intervention
Download PowerPoints and Handouts from this
Keynote Available at:
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/NASP_Indy.php
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216
Response to Intervention
“
A journey of a thousand
miles must begin with a
single step.
”
Lao Tzu, Chinese Taoist (600 BC-531 BC)
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Challenge:
Understanding the
Central Role that
Motivation Plays in
Student Success
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Response to Intervention
Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project
• 3 cohorts of children (about 250 children per cohort)
were followed across elementary, middle and high
school. (Children were recruited from 4 middle-class
school districts in the midwest.)
• In the subject areas of math, language arts, and sports,
students were asked each year to rate their
competence in the subject and their valuing of it.
Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence
and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.
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Response to Intervention
Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project: Some
Findings
• Ratings of both competence and value declined for all 3 subject areas
(math, language arts, and sports) for boys and girls as they grew older.
• Girls rated themselves lower in competence in math throughout school—
until grade 12, when boys and girls converged in their ratings (because
boys’ ratings declined faster than did girls’ ratings).
• Across all grade levels, boys rated themselves significantly less
competent than did girls in language arts.
• Not surprisingly, boys’ and girls’ valuing (enjoyment, liking) of a subject
area correlated with perceived ability. Generally, boys and girls who rated
themselves as lowest in ability also rated their valuing of the subject area
as lowest.
Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence
and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.
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Response to Intervention
Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (NRC, 2002)
1.
Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts, operations, and
relations--knowing what mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.
2.
Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such as adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing numbers flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and
appropriately.
3.
Applying: Being able to formulate problems mathematically and to devise
strategies for solving them using concepts and procedures appropriately.
4.
Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to a problem or to extend
from something known to something less known.
5.
Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and doable—if you work at
it—and being willing to do the work.
Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study
Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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221
Response to Intervention
School Dropout as a Process, Not an Event
“It is increasingly accepted that dropout is best
conceptualized as a long-term process, not an
instantaneous event; however, most interventions
are administered at a middle or high school level
after problems are severe.”
Source: Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., & Hess, R. (2008). Best practices in increasing the likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists..
p.1090
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Response to Intervention
Student Motivation & The Need for Intervention
“A common response to students who struggle in sixth
grade is to wait and hope they grow out of it or adapt, to
attribute early struggles to the natural commotion of
early adolescence and to temporary difficulties in
adapting to new organizational structures of schooling,
more challenging curricula and assessment, and less
personalized attention. Our evidence clearly indicates
that, at least in high-poverty urban schools, sixth
graders who are missing 20% or more of the days,
exhibiting poor behavior, or failing math or English do
not recover. On the contrary, they drop out. This says
that early intervention is not only productive but
absolutely essential.”
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
What Are the ‘Early Warning Flags’ of Student Drop-Out?
•
•
•
•
A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
tracked for 8 years. These early warning indicators were
found to predict student drop-out in the sixth-grade
year:
Failure in English
Failure in math
Missing at least 20% of school days
Receiving an ‘unsatisfactory’ behavior rating from at
least one teacher
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of ‘Early Warning Flags’ Probability That Student Would
in Student Record
Graduate
None
56%
1
36%
2
21%
3
13%
4
7%
Source: Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation
path in urban middle grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist,42, 223–235. .
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Challenge:
Defining Motivation and
Related Behavioral
Principles
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Response to Intervention
Academic or Behavioral Targets Are Stated as
‘Replacement Behaviors’
“The implementation of successful interventions begins
with accurate problem identification. Traditionally, the
student problem was stated as a broad, general
concern (e.g., impulsive, aggressive, reading below
grade level) that a teacher identified. In a competencybased approach, however, the problem identification is
stated in terms of the desired replacement behaviors
that will increase the student’s probability of successful
adaptation to the task demands of the academic
setting.” p. 178
Source: Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon, D. N., & Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 177-193).
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227
Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Similar Behaviors May Stem from Very
Different ‘Root’ Causes
(Kratochwill, Elliott, & Carrington Rotto, 1990)
• Behavior is not random but follows purposeful patterns.
Students who present with the same apparent ‘surface’
behaviors may have very different ‘drivers’ (underlying
reasons) that explain why those behaviors occur.
A student’s problem behaviors must be
carefully identified and analyzed to
determine the drivers that support them.
Source: Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N., & Carrington Rotto, P. (1990). Best practices in behavioral consultation. In A. Thomas
and J. Grimes (Eds.). Best practices in school psychology-II (pp. 147=169). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists..
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Response to Intervention
Inference: Moving Beyond the Margins of the ‘Known’
“An inference is a tentative conclusion without direct
or conclusive support from available data. All
hypotheses are, by definition, inferences. It is critical
that problem analysts make distinctions between
what is known and what is inferred or
hypothesized….Low-level inferences should be
exhausted prior to the use of high-level inferences.”
p. 161
Source: Christ, T. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school
psychology V (pp. 159-176).
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Response to Intervention
Examples of High vs. Low Inference Hypotheses
An 11th-grade student does poorly on tests and quizzes in math.
Homework is often incomplete. He frequently shows up late for
class and does not readily participate in group discussions.
High-Inference Hypothesis. The student is ‘just
lazy’ and would do better if he would only apply
himself.
Unknown
Known
Unknown
Low-Inference Hypothesis. The student has
gaps in academic skills that require (a) mapping
out those skill gaps, and (b) providing the
student with remedial instruction as needed.
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Known
230
Response to Intervention
Student Motivation Levels Are Strongly Influenced
by the Instructional Setting (Lentz & Shapiro, 1986)
• Students with learning or motivation problems do
not exist in isolation. Rather, their instructional
environment plays an enormously important role
in these students’ degree of academic
engagement.
Source: Lentz, F. E. & Shapiro, E. S. (1986). Functional assessment of the academic environment. School Psychology Review,
15, 346-57.
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Response to Intervention
“
…educators continue to exert change efforts
toward the individual, particularly in the form of
punitive responses, when academic or behavior
problems arise. Yet, a rapidly growing literature
base offers evidence that this may not be an
altogether effective, expedient, or comprehensive
approach to academic and behavioral challenges.
Instead, intervention strategies that are likely to
have a large impact and sustained effect must duly
alter those environmental events that beget
student challenges. (Kern & Clemens, 2007)
”
Source: Kern, L., & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in
the Schools, 44, 65-75.
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: Academic Delays Can Be
a Potent Cause of Behavior
Problems
(Witt, Daly, & Noell, 2000)
Student academic problems cause many
school behavior problems.
“Whether [a student’s] problem is a behavior problem or an
academic one, we recommend starting with a functional
academic assessment, since often behavior problems occur
when students cannot or will not do required academic work.”
Source: Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and
behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West, p. 13
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Response to Intervention
Defining Motivation: Activity
At your table:
• Discuss the term ‘ motivation’.
• Come up with a definition of this term
that you feel would be appropriate to
share with your teaching staff.
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Response to Intervention
Definitions of ‘Motivation’
Source: Bomia, L., Beluzo, L., Demeester, D.,
Motivation “refers to a student's
Elander, K., Johnson, M., & Sheldon, B.
(1997). The impact of teaching strategies on
willingness, need, desire and
intrinsic motivation. Champaign, IL: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Education. (ERIC Document
compulsion to participate in, and Childhood
Reproduction Service No. ED 418 925)
be successful in, the learning
process.”
“Motivation is typically defined as
the forces that account for the
arousal, selection, direction, and
continuation of behavior.”
www.interventioncentral.org
Source: Excerpted from Chapter 11 of
Biehler/Snowman, PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED
TO TEACHING, 8/e, Houghton Mifflin, 1997.
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Response to Intervention
Unmotivated Students: What Works
Motivation can be thought of as having two dimensions:
1. the student’s expectation
of success on the task
2.
………………100
Multiplied by
X
the value that the student places ...…………
100
on achieving success on that
learning task
0
100
The relationship between the two factors is multiplicative. If EITHER of
these factors (the student’s expectation of success on the task OR the
student’s valuing of that success) is zero, then the ‘motivation’ product will
also be zero.
Source: Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior
problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for
academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda,
MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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Response to Intervention
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
“An intrinsically motivated behavior [is defined as] one
for which there exists no recognizable reward except
the activity itself (e.g., reading). That is, behavior that
cannot be attributed to external controls is usually
attributed to intrinsic motivation.”
“…an extrinsically motivated behavior refers to
behavior controlled by stimuli external to the task.”
p. 345
Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or
best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.
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Response to Intervention
Intrinsic Motivation: Is There Any Utility to This
Construct?
By definition, intrinsic motivation is supported by the
reinforcing quality of the activity alone. As a
construct, ‘intrinsic motivation’ may be untestable,
because the reinforcer cannot be directly observed or
experimentally manipulated.
“Intrinsic motivation has been defined as behaviors
performed in the absence of observable external
reinforcement. Defining any construct in terms of what
it is not does little to advance the course of science.”
p. 358
Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or
best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.
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Response to Intervention
Big Ideas: The Four Stages of Learning Can Be
Summed Up in the ‘Instructional Hierarchy
(Haring et al., 1978)
Student learning can be thought of as a multi-stage process. The
universal stages of learning include:
• Acquisition: The student is just acquiring the skill.
• Fluency: The student can perform the skill but
must make that skill ‘automatic’.
• Generalization: The student must perform the skill
across situations or settings.
• Adaptation: The student confronts novel task
demands that require that the student adapt a
current skill to meet new requirements.
Source: Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus,
OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.
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Response to Intervention
Reframing ‘Intrinsic Motivation’ as the
Handiwork of Good Teachers
• When a student appears to be ‘intrinsically motivated’ to
complete a task, that student has advanced through the
stages of the Instructional Hierarchy to independence.
To reach his or her current state of academic competence,
however, the student needed to move through the usual
stages of learning and required lots of close teacher support,
encouragement, and extrinsic reinforcement.
When students are observed who seem to be ‘intrinsically
motivated’ by academics, then, we are merely observing the
excellent handiwork of past teachers!
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Response to Intervention
Motivation in Action: ‘Flow’
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Response to Intervention
Definition of the ‘Flow’ State
“Being completely involved in an activity for
its own sake. The ego falls away. Time
flies. Every action, movement, and thought
follows inevitably from the previous one,
like playing jazz. Your whole being is
involved, and you're using your skills to the
utmost.”
--Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Source: Geirland, J. (Septermber, 1996). Go with the flow. Wired Magazine. Retrieved March 19, 2007, from
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.09/czik_pr.html
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Response to Intervention
Qualities of Activities that May Elicit a ‘Flow’ State
•
•
•
•
The activity is challenging and requires skill to complete
Goals are clear
Feedback is immediate
There is a ‘merging of action and awareness’. ‘All the attention
is concentrated on the relevant stimuli’ so that individuals are
no longer aware of themselves as ‘separate from the actions
they are performing’
• The sense of time’s passing is altered: Time may seem
slowed or pass very quickly
• ‘Flow’ is not static. As one acquires mastery over an activity,
he or she must move to more challenging experiences to
continue to achieve ‘flow’
Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row
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Response to Intervention
Flow Channel
• Student A:
C: Low
High
Challenge
D:
HighChallenge
Challenge
B:
HighSkills,
Skills,Low
Low
(High)
C Anxiety
Challenges
D
BoredomB
A
(Low)
(Low)
Skills
Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row
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(High)
244
Response to Intervention
The Gordian Knot: A Symbol
for an Intractable Problem
Solved Through an Innovative
Approach
• The Gordian Knot was a relic kept in an ancient temple in
the kingdom of Phrygia. The knot was so intricate and
cunningly woven together that no person could untie it.
• One day, the Macedonian military conqueror Alexander
the Great visited the temple to view the knot. When told
that many had tried without success through the ages to
untie it, Alexander studied the knot closely—then pulled
out his sword and cut it in two.
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Response to Intervention
Student Motivation: Cutting the ‘Gordian
Knot’ by Reframing the Issue in Observable
(and Fixable) Terms
Step 1: Redefine ‘motivation’ as academic engagement:
e.g., The student chooses “to engage in active accurate
academic responding” (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis,
2005).
Step 2: Build staff support for this mission statement:
“When a student appears unmotivated, it is the school’s
job to figure out why the student is unmotivated and to
find a way to get that student motivated.”
Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Challenge:
Analyzing Why a Student
Lacks Motivation and
Selecting Appropriate
Strategies
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Response to Intervention
“
[An important] assumption of social cognitive
models of motivation is that motivation is not a
stable trait of an individual, but is more situational,
contextual, and domain-specific. In other words,
not only are students motivated in multiple ways,
but their motivation can vary depending on the
situation or context in the classroom or school.
…This provides hope for teachers and school
psychologists and suggests that instructional
efforts and the design of classrooms and schools
can make a difference in motivating students for
academic achievement. (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002,
”
p. 314).
Source: Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Motivation as an enabler for academic success. School Psychology
Review, 31, 313-327.
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Response to Intervention
Six Reasons That Students Are Unmotivated
(And What Teachers Can Do)
The student is unmotivated because he or she cannot do the
assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because the ‘response effort’ needed
to complete the assigned work seems too great.
The student is unmotivated because classroom instruction does
not engage.
The student is unmotivated because he or she fails to see an
adequate pay-off to doing the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because of low self-efficacy—lack of
confidence that he or she can do the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because he or she lacks a positive
relationship with the teacher.
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Response to Intervention
Six Reasons Why Students Are Unmotivated (And What
Teachers Can Do)
• This handout provides
guidance to teachers in
identifying why a student lacks
motivation and what general
strategies are recommended
in the research.
• The teacher then has latitude
to use the general guidelines
and the research that supports
them as a starting-point for
their own intervention ideas to
boost motivation.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: The student is
unmotivated because he or she cannot do
the assigned work.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem:
The student lacks essential skills required to do the task.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem (Cont.):
Areas of deficit might include:
• Basic academic skills. Basic skills have straightforward criteria for correct
performance (e.g., the student defines vocabulary words or decodes text
or computes ‘math facts’) and comprise the building-blocks of more
complex academic tasks (Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009).
• Cognitive strategies. Students employ specific cognitive strategies as
“guiding procedures” to complete more complex academic tasks such as
reading comprehension or writing (Rosenshine, 1995
• Academic-enabling skills. Skills that are ‘academic enablers’ (DiPerna,
2006) are not tied to specific academic knowledge but rather aid student
learning across a wide range of settings and tasks (e.g., organizing work
materials, time management).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: When a student lacks the
capability to complete an academic task because of limited
or missing basic skills, cognitive strategies, or academicenabling skills, that student is still in the acquisition stage of
learning (Haring et al., 1978). That student cannot be
expected to be motivated or to be successful as a learner
unless he or she is first explicitly taught these weak or
absent essential skills (Daly, Witt, Martens & Dool, 1997).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
The teacher collects information (e.g., through observations
of the student engaging in academic tasks; interviews with
the student; examination of work products, quizzes, or
tests) demonstrating that the student lacks basic skills,
cognitive strategies, or academic-enabling skills essential to
the academic task.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: Students who are
not motivated because they lack essential skills need to be
taught those skills.
Direct-Instruction Format. Students learning new material,
concepts, or skills benefit from a ‘direct instruction’
approach. (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008;
Rosenshine, 1995; Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009).
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: When following a
direct-instruction format, the teacher:
ensures that the lesson content is appropriately
matched to students’ abilities.
opens the lesson with a brief review of concepts or
material that were previously presented.
states the goals of the current day’s lesson.
breaks new material into small, manageable increments,
or steps.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: When following a
direct-instruction format, the teacher:
throughout the lesson, provides adequate explanations
and detailed instructions for all concepts and materials
being taught. NOTE: Verbal explanations can include
‘talk-alouds’ (e.g., the teacher describes and explains
each step of a cognitive strategy) and ‘think-alouds’
(e.g., the teacher applies a cognitive strategy to a
particular problem or task and verbalizes the steps in
applying the strategy).
regularly checks for student understanding by posing
frequent questions and eliciting group responses.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: When following a
direct-instruction format, the teacher:
verifies that students are experiencing sufficient success
in the lesson content to shape their learning in the
desired direction and to maintain student motivation and
engagement.
provides timely and regular performance feedback and
corrections throughout the lesson as needed to guide
student learning.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: When following a
direct-instruction format, the teacher:
allows students the chance to engage in practice
activities distributed throughout the lesson (e.g., through
teacher demonstration; then group practice with teacher
supervision and feedback; then independent, individual
student practice).
ensures that students have adequate support (e.g.,
clear and explicit instructions; teacher monitoring) to be
successful during independent seatwork practice
activities.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI Interventions: What If There is No Commercial
Intervention Package or Program Available?
“Although commercially prepared programs and the
subsequent manuals and materials are inviting, they are not
necessary. … A recent review of research suggests that
interventions are research based and likely to be successful,
if they are correctly targeted and provide explicit instruction
in the skill, an appropriate level of challenge, sufficient
opportunities to respond to and practice the skill, and
immediate feedback on performance…Thus, these
[elements] could be used as criteria with which to judge
potential tier 2 interventions.” p. 88
Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools.
Routledge: New York.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: The student is
unmotivated because the ‘response effort’
needed to complete the assigned work
seems too great.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem:
Although the student has the required skills to complete the
assigned work, he or she perceives the ‘effort’ needed to
do so to be so great that the student loses motivation.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: Research indicates that (1) as
the perceived effort to complete an academic task or other
behavior (‘response effort’) increases, people are less likely
to engage in that behavior, while (2) as the effort to
complete the same behavior decreases, people are more
likely to engage in it (Friman & Poling, 1995).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
The teacher first checks to see that the student has the
requisite skills needed for academic success. The teacher
then looks for evidence that, in specific situations, the
student is reluctant to undertake academic tasks because
they are perceived to require too much effort.
Tell-tale signs that a student may be unmotivated because
of the required response effort include procrastination,
verbal complaining, frequent seeking of teacher help, and
other avoidant behaviors.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: Teachers can
increase student motivation through any method that
reduces the apparent ‘response effort’ of an academic task
(Friman & Poling, 1995). - so long as that method does not
hold the student to a lesser academic standard than
classmates (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis, 2005).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing
Response Effort :
• Start Assigned Readings in Class. Whenever the teacher
assigns a challenging text for students to read
independently (e.g., as homework), the teacher (or perhaps
a skilled student reader) reads the first few paragraphs of
the assigned reading aloud while the class follows along
silently in their own texts. Students are then expected to
read the remainder of the text on their own.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing
Response Effort :
• Begin Challenging Homework Assignments in Class. When
assigned challenging homework, students are paired off or
divided into groups and given a small amount of class time
to begin the homework together, develop a plan for
completing the homework, formulate questions about the
homework, or engage in other activities that will create the
necessary momentum to motivate students then to
complete the work independently.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing
Response Effort :
• ‘Chunk’ Assignments. The teacher breaks a larger student
assignment into smaller ‘chunks’. The teacher provides the
student with performance feedback and praise for each
completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work (Skinner, Pappas, &
Davis, 2005).
• Select a Supportive Peer or Adult to Get a Student Started
on Assignments. If a student finds it difficult to get
organized and begin independent seatwork activities, a
supportive peer or adult in the classroom can get the
student organized and started on the assignment.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing
Response Effort :
• Provide a Formal Work Plan. For more complex
assignments such as research papers, the teacher gives
the student an outline of a work plan for completing those
assignments. The plan breaks a larger assignment into
appropriate sub-steps (e.g., ‘find five research articles for
the paper’, ‘summarize key information from research
articles into notes’, etc.). For each sub-step, the plan
provides (1) an estimate of the minimum ‘seat time’
required to complete it and (2) sets a calendar-date
deadline for completion. The teacher then touches base
with the student at least weekly about his or her progress.
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Response to Intervention
Sequencing of Activities: Precede LowProbability Items with High-Probability Items
Using High-Probability Sequencing. A ‘low-probability’ problem or
item is one that the student is less likely to attempt, perhaps because of
poor motivation. However, educators can make use of behavioral
momentum to raise the odds that the student will attempt a low-probability
challenge problem by first presenting that student with a series of problems
that are ‘high probability’ (the student is likely to attempt and to complete
them correctly) (Cates et al., 2003). On a spelling test, for example, the
instructor may present three easier words in a row before presenting the
low-probability challenge word (e.g., ‘specific’). The instructor can
experiment with the number of high-probability problems or items that
precede each low-probability challenge problem to find the most efficient
sequence that still promotes student motivation and learning.
Source: Cates, G. L., Skinner, C. H., Watson, T. S., Meadows, T. J., Weaver, A., & Jackson, B. (2003). Instructional effectiveness and
instructional efficiency as considerations for data-based decision making: An evaluation of interspersing procedures. School
Psychology Review, 32, 601-616.
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Response to Intervention
Helping the Student
Who is ‘Under Water’
With Late
Assignments: A
Structure for
Teacher–Student
Conferences
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Response to Intervention
Negotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher
Conference
When students fall behind in their classwork, they can
quickly enter a downward spiral. Some students become
overwhelmed and simply give up.
In such cases, the teacher may want to meet with the
student –and if possible, a parent--to help that student to
create a work plan to catch up with late work.
At the meeting, the teacher and student inventory what
work is missing, negotiate a plan to complete that overdue
work, and perhaps agree on a reasonable penalty when
late work is turned in. All attending then sign off on the
work plan. The teacher also ensures that the atmosphere
at the meeting is supportive.
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Response to Intervention
Negotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher
Conference (Cont.)
Here in greater detail are the steps that the teacher and
student would follow at a meeting to renegotiate missing
work:
1. Inventory All Missing Work. The teacher reviews with the
student all late or missing work. The student is given the
opportunity to explain why the work has not yet been
submitted.
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Response to Intervention
Negotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher
Conference (Cont.)
2. Negotiate a Plan to Complete Missing Work. The teacher
and student create a log with entries for all missing
assignments. Each entry includes a description of the
missing assignment and a due date by which the student
pledges to submit that work. This log becomes the
student’s work plan. Submission dates for late
assignments should be realistic--particularly for students
who owe a considerable amount of late work and are
also trying to keep caught up with current assignments.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Negotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher
Conference (Cont.)
3. [Optional] Impose a Penalty for Missing Work. The
teacher may decide to impose a penalty for the work
being submitted late. Examples of possible penalties are
a reduction of points (e.g., loss of 10 points per
assignment) or the requirement that the student do
additional work on the assignment than was required of
his or her peers who turned it in on time. If imposed,
such penalties would be spelled out at this teacherstudent conference. Any penalties should be balanced
and fair, permitting the teacher to impose appropriate
consequences while allowing the student to still see a
path to completing missing work and passing the course.
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Response to Intervention
Negotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher
Conference (Cont.)
4. Periodically Check on the Status of the Missing-Work
Plan. If the schedule agreed upon by teacher and
student to complete and submit all late work exceeds
two weeks, the teacher (or other designated school
contact, such as a counselor) should meet with the
student weekly while the plan is in effect. At these
meetings, the teacher checks in with the student to verify
that he or she is attaining the plan milestones on time
and still expects to meet the submission deadlines
agreed upon. If obstacles to emerge, the teacher and
student engage in problem-solving to resolve them.
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Response to Intervention
Download PowerPoints and Handouts from this
Keynote Available at:
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/NASP_Indy.php
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Response to Intervention
Motivating the Reluctant Student: Activity
• Review the two
reasons for poor
student motivation
presented.
• Discuss how your
school might identify
and support students
who lack motivation for
these reasons.
• Motivation Deficit 1: The student is
unmotivated because he or she
cannot do the assigned work.
• Motivation Deficit 2: The student is
unmotivated because the ‘response
effort’ needed to complete the
assigned work seems too great.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: The student is
unmotivated because classroom instruction
does not engage.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The
student is distracted or off-task because classroom
instruction and learning activities are not sufficiently
reinforcing to hold his or her attention.
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Response to Intervention
“
…researchers [shows] that when provided with a
choice of two or more behaviors, with all else held
constant, students are more likely to choose to
engage in the behavior that results in more
immediate reinforcement, higher rate
reinforcement, or higher quality reinforcement…
Thus, educators can increase the probability of
students choosing to engage in assigned work by
both enhancing reinforcement for assigned tasks
and weakening reinforcement for competing
behaviors… (Skinner et al., 2005; p. 396)
”
Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: In classroom settings, students
can choose to respond to a variety of reinforcing events—
for example, watching the teacher, interacting with peers,
looking out the window at passing traffic. The fact is that
classroom instruction must always compete for student
attention with other sources of reinforcement (Billington &
DiTommaso, 2003; Skinner, Pappas, & Davis, 2005). There
are two ways that the instructor can increase the student’s
motivation to attend to classroom instruction: (1) by
decreasing the reinforcing power of competing (distracting)
stimuli, and/or (2) by increasing the reinforcing power of
academic activities.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
The teacher observes that the student is engaged in
behaviors other than those related to instruction or is
otherwise distracted by non-instructional events occurring
in the classroom. Furthermore, the teacher has verified that
the student’s lack of attention to instruction is not due
primarily to that student’s attempting to escape or avoid
difficult classwork.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: The teacher can
increase the inattentive student’s focus on instruction and
engagement in learning activities by:
– Reducing the Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional
Activities. The teacher identifies any non-instructional
activities in the classroom that are competing with
instruction for the student’s attention and takes steps to
reduce or eliminate them.
– Increasing the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction.
The teacher strives to boost the reinforcing quality of
academic activities and instruction to better capture and
hold the student’s attention.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing the
Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional Activities:
• Use Preferential Seating (U.S. Department of Education,
2004). The teacher seats a student who is distracted by
peers or other environmental factors in a location where the
student is most likely to stay focused on instructional
content. All teachers have an 'action zone', a part of the
room where they tend to focus most of their instruction; the
instructor seats the distractible student somewhere within
that zone. The ideal seating location for any particular
student will vary, depending on the unique qualities of that
student and of the classroom.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing the
Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional Activities:
• Create Low-Distraction Work Areas (U.S. Department of
Education, 2004. For students who are off-task during
independent seatwork, the teacher can set up a study
carrel in the corner of the room or other low-distraction work
area. The teacher can then either direct the distractible
student to use that area whenever independent seatwork is
assigned or can permit the student to choose when to use
the area.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing the
Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional Activities:
• Restrict Student Access to Electronic Devices and Other
Potential Distracting Objects. The teacher creates a list of
personal possessions that can pose the potential to distract
from instruction (e.g., cell phones, personal game devices,
etc.). The teacher either completely bans use of these
items of student property at any point during a course
session or restricts their use to clearly specified times or
conditions.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing
the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:
• Use Bellringer Activities. The teacher routinely gives
students ‘bellringer’ activities to work on as soon as they
enter the classroom. The point of this strategy is to capture
students’ attention at the outset with academically relevant
activities. Ideally, bellringer tasks should be engaging but
also should review and reinforce previously taught content
or prepare students for the upcoming lesson.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing
the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:
• Provide Opportunities for Choice (Kern, Bambara, & Fogt,
2002). One efficient way to promote choice in the
classroom is for the teacher to create a master menu of
options that students can select from in various learning
situations. For example, during independent assignment,
students might be allowed to (1) choose from at least 2
assignment options, (2) sit where they want in the
classroom, and (3) select a peer-buddy to check their work.
Student choice then becomes integrated seamlessly into
the classroom routine.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing
the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:
• Structure Lessons around High-Interest or FunctionalLearning Goals (Kern, Bambara, & Fogt, 2002; Miller et al.,
2003). A student is more likely to be engaged when
academic lessons are based on ‘high-interest’ topics that
interest the student (e.g., NASCAR racing; fashion) or that
have a ‘functional-learning’ pay-off—e.g., job interview
skills; money management skills --that the student values
and can apply in his or her own life.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing
the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:
• Incorporate Cooperative Learning Activities into Instruction
(Beyda, Zentall, & Ferko, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
2002). Teacher-directed cooperative learning activities can
be highly reinforcing for adolescent students, who typically
find opportunities to interact with classmates to be a strong
motivator. Cooperative learning tasks have the added
advantages of promoting active student engagement and
allowing the instructor to get real-time feedback through
direct observation about the abilities and learning of
individual students.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing
the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:
• Maintain a Brisk Pace of Instruction (Gettinger & Seibert,
2002). Instruction that is well-matched to the abilities of the
classroom and moves at a brisk pace is most likely to
capture and hold student attention. Additionally, the teacher
is careful to avoid ‘dead time’, interruptions of instruction
(e.g., time-consuming transitions to other activities; etc.)
when students may get off-task and be difficult to redirect
back to academic tasks.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 4: The student is
unmotivated because he or she fails to see
an adequate pay-off to doing the assigned
work.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The
student requires praise, access to rewards, or other
reinforcers in the short term as a temporary ‘pay-off’ to
encourage her or him to apply greater effort.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: The use of external rewards
(‘reinforcers’) can serve as a temporary strategy to
encourage a reluctant student to become invested in
completing school work and demonstrating appropriate
behaviors (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little, 2004). As the
student puts increased effort into academics and behavior
to earn teacher-administered reinforcers, the student may
in turn begin to experience such positive natural reinforcers
as improved grades, increased peer acceptance, a greater
sense of self-efficacy in course content, and higher rates of
teacher and parent approval. The teacher can then fade
and perhaps fully eliminate the use of rewards.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
Through direct observation, student interview, and/or other
means, the teacher has verified that instruction is effectively
delivered and sufficiently engaging for most of the class,
that the target student has the academic and related skills
required for the academic work, and that the student has
failed to be motivated by existing incentives such as grades
that are typically available in classrooms. In the teacher’s
judgment, the target student needs additional incentives
(e.g., praise, rewards) to promote motivation to complete
academic tasks.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:
Praise the Student. The teacher praises the student in clear
and specific terms when the student engages in the desired
behavior (Kern & Clemens, 2007). The teacher uses praise
statements at a rate sufficient to motivate and guide the
student toward the behavioral goal.
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Response to Intervention
Praise: Effective…and Underused
Praise can be an efficient way to raise the compliance
level of whole groups or individual students.
However, studies show that praise is seldom used
with general education students and is used even
less often with special-needs students (Kern &
Clemens, 2007).
Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the
Schools, 44, 65-75.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:
Use Rewards. The teacher establishes a reward system to
motivate an individual student by implementing these steps
(e.g., Kazdin, 1989):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define the Target Behavior.
Establish Criteria for Success.
Choose Student Incentives.
Decide Whether a Point System Will Be Used.
Decide How the Reward is to Be Delivered.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Motivating the Reluctant Student: Activity
• Review the two
reasons for poor
student motivation
presented.
• Discuss how your
school might identify
and support students
who lack motivation for
these reasons.
• Motivation Deficit 3: The student is
unmotivated because classroom
instruction does not engage.
• Motivation Deficit 4: The student is
unmotivated because he or she fails
to see an adequate pay-off to doing
the assigned work.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: The student is
unmotivated because of low self-efficacy—
lack of confidence that he or she can do the
assigned work.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The
student has a low sense of self-efficacy in a subject area,
activity, or academic task and that lack of confidence
reduces the student’s motivation to apply his or her best
effort. NOTE: Self-efficacy is the student’s view of his or
her own abilities specific to a particular academic area
(e.g., mathematics) and should not be confused with selfesteem, which represents the student’s global view of his
or her self-worth.
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Response to Intervention
Academic Motivation: ‘Domain-Specific’
“Research on achievement motivation has documented
the role of self-competence beliefs as mediators of
actual achievement in various domains…According to
numerous theories (e.g., attribution theory, self-efficacy
theory, self-worth theory), children perform better and
are more motivated to select increasingly challenging
tasks when they believe that they have the ability to
accomplish a particular task….Most current research
and theory focuses on the links between domainspecific self-competence beliefs and domain-specific
motivation and performance.” p. 509
Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence
and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: Students often sabotage their
academic performance by engaging in negative self-talk
about their abilities and by making faulty attributions to
explain poor academic performance (Linnenbrink &
Pintrich, 2002).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
Teachers can tap students’ impressions of self-efficacy by
asking them to ‘think aloud’ about their abilities in the
academic area of interest, encouraging the student to:
– talk about their perceived strengths and weaknesses as learners
in particular subject areas
– give examples (with details) about specific successes and failures
that they have experienced on academic assignments present
strategies (if any) that they typically use to
– Discuss how they complete a range of common academic tasks
(e.g., undertaking a term paper, completing a chemistry lab
exercise, doing homework)
– disclose their routine for preparing for quizzes and tests.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:
Challenge Faulty Student Attributions about Ability. As a
student articulates attitudes toward learning and describes
techniques that he or she uses as an independent learner, the
teacher can use this information to identify whether a low
sense of academic self-efficacy may be holding the student
back.
A useful framework for analyzing student views about their
academic abilities is presented by Linnenbrink & Pintrich
(2002). The authors analyze student attributions along three
dimensions: internal/external; stable/unstable; and
controllable/uncontrollable.
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Response to Intervention
How Attributions About Learning Contribute to
Academic Outcomes
Attribution Theory: Dimensions Affecting Student
Interpretation of Academic Successes & Failures
(Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002)
The situation or event is…


Unstable (changes often)
Internal (within the student)
Uncontrollable (beyond the
ability of the student to
influence)

Stable (can be counted on to
remain relatively unchanged)

External (occurring in the
surrounding environment)

Controllable (within the
student’s ability to influence)

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Response to Intervention
How Attributions About Learning Contribute to
Academic Outcomes
This
teacher
always
springs
quizzes on us—
Some
people
are
bornpopmathematicians.
and picks questions that are impossible to study for!
I was born to watch TV.
The situation or event is…


Unstable (changes often)
Internal (within the student)
Uncontrollable (beyond the
ability of the student to
influence)

Stable (can be counted on to
remain relatively unchanged)

External (occurring in the
surrounding environment)

Controllable (within the
student’s ability to influence)

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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• Examples of Faulty Student Attributions and ‘Teacher
Corrections’: External vs. Internal
A student blames the teacher for giving unannounced quizzes
that catch the student unprepared (external explanation of the
problem).
In response, the instructor points out that the student has the
option to review course content regularly and thus always be
prepared for quizzes (shifting the focus by tying the internal
explanation of student preparation to the goal of improving
academic performance).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• Examples of Faulty Student Attributions and ‘Teacher
Corrections’: Stable vs. Unstable
A student laments to her math teacher that her difficulty in
grasping concepts relating to negative numbers shows that she
‘will never get a good grade in math’ (a view that the problem is
long-term and therefore stable).
The teacher helps the student to reframe the problem as
unstable and likely to improve soon by noting that many
students struggle with negative-number concepts but that the
student should find upcoming math instructional modules to be
much easier to comprehend.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)
• Examples of Faulty Student Attributions and ‘Teacher
Corrections’: Controllable vs. Uncontrollable
A teacher points out to a student who complains about the
requirements of a particular course as arbitrary and unfair
(uncontrollable) that the student was given a syllabus at the
start of the semester spelling out all academic requirements to
be used as a roadmap for the course, that the syllabus will
allow the student to complete assignments ahead of time if he
wishes, and that furthermore the student is welcome to seek
help from the teacher whenever he chooses (controllable
factors).
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Response to Intervention
Challenging ‘Faulty’ Student Attributions: Example
A student says ‘I am just not wired to be a writer” (faulty
attribution: stable, internal, uncontrollable). The teacher shows
the student evidence to disconfirm her attribution: examples of
the student’s own writing from a portfolio that are of high quality
because the topic had interested the student.
The instructor demonstrates that when the student puts effort
into her writing, the product is reliably and predictably
improved--reframe: unstable/changeable (quality of the writing
product depends on student effort), internal (the student has
the necessary skill set to produce good writing), controllable
(student effort is the key factor in producing a quality writing
product).
Source: Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Motivation as an enabler for academic success. School Psychology
Review, 31, 313-327.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: The student is
unmotivated because he or she lacks a
positive relationship with the teacher.
• Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The
student appears indifferent or even hostile toward the
instructor and thus may lack motivation to follow teacher
requests or to produce work.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
• What the Research Says: Because humans are highly
social beings, positive teacher attention can be a very
powerful motivator for students (e.g., Kazdin, 1989).
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
• What the Research Says (Cont.): At times, however,
instructors and students can fall into a ‘negative reinforcement
trap’ (Maag, 2001; p. 176) that actively undercuts positive
relationships: A student who has difficulty with the classwork
misbehaves and is then sent by the teacher to the principal’s
office. Both teacher and student are reinforced by the
student’s exclusion from the classroom: The teacher is
negatively reinforced by having a difficult student removed
from the room and the student is also negatively reinforced by
being allowed to escape the challenging classwork. Because
this scenario is reinforcing to both parties, it is very likely to be
repeated with increasing frequency unless the teacher
intervenes to break the negative cycle.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:
The teacher looks for evidence that the student lacks a
positive relationship with the teacher, such as:
– the student’s apparent avoidance of opportunities to talk to the
teacher
– a lack of eye contact, sarcastic or defiant student comments
– a general pattern of defiant or non-compliant behavior.
NOTE: Because teachers as well as students are social
beings, an instructor’s impression of whether a student
‘likes’ them or not can often be a good predictor of the
actual state of the teacher-student relationship.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: The teacher
provides the student with increased doses of positive
attention at times when the student is engaging in
appropriate behavior. (At the same time, the teacher keeps
interactions with the student brief and neutral when that
student misbehaves—although the student otherwise is
held to the same behavioral expectations as his or her
peers.)
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve the Student-Teacher
Relationship:
• Strive for a High Ratio of Positive Interactions with Students
(Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). A general, proactive
rule of thumb to promote positive teacher-student
relationships is for instructors to maintain a ratio of at least
three positive interactions with any student for every
negative (disciplinary) interaction that they have that
student.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve the Student-Teacher
Relationship:
• Commit to a Short Series of Positive ‘Micro-Conversations’
(Mendler, 2000). The teacher selects a student with whom
that instructor wants to build a more positive relationship.
The instructor makes a commitment to spend 2 minutes per
day for ten consecutive days engaging the student in a
positive conversation about topics of interest to that
student. NOTE: During those two-minute daily
conversations, the teacher maintains a positive tone and
avoids talking about the student’s problem behaviors or
poor academic performance.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)
Try These Ideas to Improve the Student-Teacher
Relationship:
• Emphasize the Positive in Teacher Requests (Braithwaite,
2001). The teacher avoids using negative phrasing (e.g., "If
you don't return to your seat, I can’t help you with your
assignment") when making a request of a student. Instead,
the teacher request is stated in positive terms (e.g., "I will
be over to help you on the assignment just as soon as you
return to your seat"). When a request has a positive 'spin',
that teacher is less likely to trigger a power struggle and
more likely to gain student compliance.
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Response to Intervention
Motivating the Reluctant Student: Activity
• Review the two
reasons for poor
student motivation
presented.
• Discuss how your
school might identify
and support students
who lack motivation for
these reasons.
• Motivation Deficit 5: The student is
unmotivated because of low selfefficacy—lack of confidence that he
or she can do the assigned work.
• Motivation Deficit 6: The student is
unmotivated because he or she
lacks a positive relationship with the
teacher.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Challenge:
Helping Teachers to
Proactively Manage
Instruction and Behaviors
to Optimize Student
Motivation
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Response to Intervention
ABC: The Core of Behavior Management
“....at the core of behavioral interventions is the
three-term contingency consisting of an antecedent,
behavior, and consequence.”
“… subsequent
some
“…which
“Thattois,
then
mosttype
may
behavior
be maintained
is
if it is followed
of environmental
by
believed
an event
to (i.e.,
occur…”
that is pleasurable or reinforcing
an antecedent)
…”
(i.e., consequence).”
A
B
C
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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323
Response to Intervention
ABC: Events as Antecedents
‘Discriminative Stimulus’: An antecedent can become
associated with certain desired outcomes and thus ‘trigger’
problem behaviors.
The student stares at the
Example:
A student
is given
student
sent toisthe
If the consequence
associated
with the is
behavior
paper
for aThe
moment—then
areinforcing
math computation
office-allowing
escape
from
for the student,
then
the antecedent
or trigger
tears
it up.
worksheet
can servetotocomplete.
signal (discriminate) that
is
thereinforcement
task.
coming.
A
B
C
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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324
Response to Intervention
Antecedent Strategies to Manage Behavior:
Proactive Changes to the Environment
“Antecedent interventions typically involve some type
of environmental rearrangement. ”
Source: Kern, L., Choutka, C. M., & Sokol, N. G. (2002). Assessment-based antecedent interventions used in natural settings to
reduce challenging behaviors: An analysis of the literature. Education & Treatment of Children, 25, 113-130. p. 113.
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325
Response to Intervention
Advantages of Antecedent Strategies vs. ‘Reactive
Approaches’
1. Can prevent behavior problems from occurring
2. Are typically ‘quick acting’
3. Can result in an instructional environment that
better promotes student learning
Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the
Schools, 44, 65-75.
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326
Response to Intervention
Anticipating the Unmotivated
Student
Teachers can proactively
use the checklist of
reasons for poor
motivation (and related
strategies to address
them).
The teacher reviews each
motivation blocker and
verifies that he or she has
procedures in place at the
group level to address
them.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she cannot do the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because the
‘response effort’ needed to complete the
assigned work seems too great.
The student is unmotivated because
classroom instruction does not engage.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she fails to see an adequate pay-off
to doing the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because of
low self-efficacy—lack of confidence that
he or she can do the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she lacks a positive relationship with
the teacher.
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327
Response to Intervention
“
“…One way I have used the Maze in the past at the
secondary level, is as a targeted screener to determine an
instructional match between the student and the text
materials. By screening all students on one to three Maze
samples from the text and/or books that were planned for
the course, we could find the students who could not
handle the materials without support (study guides,
highlighted texts, alternative reading material). …This
assessment is efficient and it seems quite reliable in
identifying the potential underachievers, achievers, and
overachievers. The real pay back is that success can be
built into the courses from the beginning, by providing
learning materials and supports at the students'
instructional levels.”
”
Lynn Pennington, Executive Director, SSTAGE
(Student Support Team Association for Georgia Educators)
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328
Response to Intervention
Preventing Students
from Falling Behind
Through Proactive
Teacher
Communication
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Response to Intervention
What is the Advantage of ‘Proactive Teacher
Communication’?
Struggling students benefit greatly when the teacher
provides a clear explanation of course requirements,
and offers regularly updated information about
upcoming assignments, missing work, and students’
current standing in the course. When the teacher makes
a proactive effort to keep students fully and continually
informed about course expectations and their own
performance, the instructor substantially reduces the
likelihood that students will fall behind in their work and
be at risk for underperformance or failure in the course.
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330
Response to Intervention
The Elements of ‘Proactive Teacher
Communication’
1. Prepare a Course Syllabus. At the start of the
semester, the teacher hands out a syllabus listing all
major course assignments, their descriptions, and due
dates, as well as dates of quizzes and tests. This
syllabus provides the student with a comprehensive
map of all of the work to be done in the course for the
semester. It also gives a clear explanation of the
grading system, including the relative weight toward
the final grade of tests, quizzes, homework, classwork,
and student participation. Additionally, the syllabus
spells out any penalties for submission of late work.
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Response to Intervention
The Elements of ‘Proactive Teacher
Communication’
2. Hand Out Weekly Work Agenda. On Mondays, the
teacher gives students a work agenda for the week.
The agenda lists any in-class and homework
assignments for that week, their descriptions (if
necessary), and due dates. [Optional but
recommended] The agenda may also include
milestone tasks from larger, multi-week projects (e.g.,
reminding students in a November agenda that they
should have their 6 required source documents for a
term paper selected by Friday of the current week).
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332
Response to Intervention
The Elements of ‘Proactive Teacher
Communication’
3. Schedule Weekly Student Conferences. The teacher holds
brief meetings with individual students to review their
performance in the course to date, note any missing work
and get the student to commit to a plan to submit that work,
and checks in with the student about upcoming
assignments, quizzes, and tests to ensure that the student
continues to stay on top of course requirements. NOTE: If
time constraints prevent the teacher from being able to
conference with the entire class each week, the instructor
may instead meet with at-risk students weekly and meet
less frequently (e.g., every other week or monthly) with the
remainder of the class.
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333
Response to Intervention
‘Defensive Behavior
Management’: The Power
of Teacher Preparation
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: A Method to Avoid Power
Struggles
‘Defensive management’ (Fields, 2004) is a teacherfriendly six-step approach to avert student-teacher
power struggles that emphasizes providing proactive
instructional support to the student, elimination of
behavioral triggers in the classroom setting,
relationship-building, strategic application of defusing
techniques when needed, and use of a ‘reconnection’
conference after behavioral incidents to promote
student reflection and positive behavior change.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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335
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
1. Understanding the Student Problem and Using
Proactive Strategies to Prevent ‘Triggers’. The teacher
collects information--through direct observation and perhaps
other means--about specific instances of student problem
behavior and the instructional components and other factors
surrounding them. The teacher analyzes this information to
discover specific ‘trigger’ events that seem to set off the
problem behavior(s) (e.g., lack of skills; failure to understand
directions).
The instructor then adjusts instruction to provide appropriate
student support (e.g., providing the student with additional
instruction in a skill; repeating directions and writing them on
the board).
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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336
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
2. Promoting Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
Early in each class session, the teacher has at least
one positive verbal interaction with the student.
Throughout the class period, the teacher continues to
interact in positive ways with the student (e.g., brief
conversation, smile, thumbs up, praise comment after
a student remark in large-group discussion, etc.). In
each interaction, the teacher adopts a genuinely
accepting, polite, respectful tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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337
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
3. Scanning for Warning Indicators. During the class
session, the teacher monitors the target student’s
behavior for any behavioral indicators suggesting that
the student is becoming frustrated or angry. Examples
of behaviors that precede non-compliance or open
defiance may include stopping work; muttering or
complaining; becoming argumentative; interrupting
others; leaving his or her seat; throwing objects, etc.).
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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338
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
4. Exercising Emotional Restraint. Whenever the student
begins to display problematic behaviors, the teacher
makes an active effort to remain calm. To actively monitor
his or her emotional state, the teacher tracks physiological
cues such as increased muscle tension and heart rate, as
well as fear, annoyance, anger, or other negative
emotions. The teacher also adopts calming or relaxation
strategies that work for him or her in the face of
provocative student behavior, such as taking a deep
breath or counting to 10 before responding.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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339
Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
5. Using Defusing Tactics. If the student begins to escalate
to non-compliant, defiant, or confrontational behavior (e.g.,
arguing, threatening, other intentional verbal interruptions),
the teacher draws from a range of possible descalating
strategies to defuse the situation. Such strategies can
include private conversation with the student while
maintaining a calm voice, open-ended questions,
paraphrasing the student’s concerns, acknowledging the
student’s emotions, etc.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
6. Conducting a ‘Reconnection’ Conference. Soon after
any in-class incident of student non-compliance, defiance,
or confrontation, the teacher makes a point to meet with
the student to discuss the behavioral incident, identify the
triggers in the classroom environment that led to the
problem, and brainstorm with the student to create a
written plan to prevent the reoccurrence of such an
incident. Throughout this conference, the teacher
maintains a supportive, positive, polite, and respectful
tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Group Activity: How Can the Six-Step
Process Be Used in ALL Classrooms?
At your tables:
• Discuss the 6-step
defensive behavior
management approach.
• How can your school
encourage teachers in all
classrooms to use this
approach?
Defensive Behavior Management: 6 Steps
1. Understanding the Student Problem
and Using Proactive Strategies to
Prevent ‘Triggers’.
2. Promoting Positive Teacher-Student
Interactions.
3. Scanning for Warning Indicators.
4. Exercising Emotional Restraint.
5. Using Defusing Tactics.
6. Conducting a Student ‘Reconnection’
Conference.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Challenge:
Motivating Teachers to
Want to Use Motivating
Strategies With Students
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Response to Intervention
Student Motivation: Cutting the ‘Gordian
Knot’ by Reframing the Issue in Observable
(and Fixable) Terms
Step 1: Redefine ‘motivation’ as academic engagement:
e.g., The student chooses “to engage in active accurate
academic responding” (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis,
2005).
Step 2: Build staff support for this mission statement:
“When a student appears unmotivated, it is the school’s
job to figure out why the student is unmotivated and to
find a way to get that student motivated.”
Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
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Response to Intervention
Role of ‘School Culture’ in the Acceptability of Interventions
“…school staffs are interested in strategies that fit a
group instructional and management template;
intensive strategies required by at-risk and poorly
motivated students are often viewed as cost
ineffective. Treatments and interventions that do not
address the primary mission of schooling are seen as
a poor match to school priorities and are likely to be
rejected. Thus, intervention and management
approaches that are universal in nature and that
involve a standard dosage that is easy to deliver (e.g.,
classwide social skills training) have a higher
likelihood of making it into routine or standard school
practice.”
Source: Walker, H. M. (2004). Use of evidence-based interventions in schools: Where we've been, where we are, and where
we need to go. School Psychology Review, 33, 398-407. pp. 400-401
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Response to Intervention
School Intervention Targets: Focus on What Schools Can
Change
“Rather than considering a [student] problem to be the result
of inalterable student characteristics, [school intervention]
teams are compelled to focus on change that can be made
to the intervention, curriculum or environment that would
result in positive student outcome.
The hypothesis and intervention should focus on those
variables that are alterable within the school setting. These
alterable variables include learning goals and objectives
(what is to be learned), materials, time, student-to-teacher
ratio, activities, and motivational strategies.” p. 95
Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools.
Routledge: New York.
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Response to Intervention
Focus on School Factors That We Can Control
“Some factors in students’ lives (such as family divorce, moving
frequently, drug use, and poor teaching) lower the probability
that these students will learn and/or get along with others. These
are often referred to as risk factors…Risk factors do not assure
student failure. Risk factors simply make the odds of failure
greater. Aligning assessment and instruction allows teachers…to
introduce new factors into the student’s life that raise the
probability of learning. These are often called protective factors
since they protect against the risks associated with risk
factors…The use of protective factors to raise the probability of
learning is often referred to as resilience.”
Source: Hosp, J. L. (2008). Best practices in aligning academic assessment with instruction. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.),
Best practices in school psychology V (pp.363-376). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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Response to Intervention
Engaging the Reluctant
Teacher: 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist
Implementing Classroom
RTI Interventions (pp. 2021)
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
‘Teacher Tolerance’ as an Indicator of RTI
Intervention Capacity
“I call the range of students whom [teachers] come to view as
adequately responsive – i.e., teachable – as the tolerance; those
who are perceived to be outside the tolerance are those for
whom teachers seek additional resources. The term “tolerance”
is used to indicate that teachers form a permissible boundary on
their measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a
confidence interval. In this case, the teacher actively measures
the distribution of responsiveness in her class by processing
information from a series of teaching trials and perceives some
range of students as within the tolerance.” (Gerber, 2002)
Source: Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with learning
disabilities. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas
City, MO.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & ‘Teacher Reluctance’
The willingness of teachers to implement interventions is
essential in any school to the success of the RTI model. Yet
general-education teachers may not always see themselves
as ‘interventionists’ and indeed may even resist the
expectation that they will provide individualized interventions
as a routine part of their classroom practice (Walker, 2004).
It should be remembered, however, that teachers’ reluctance
to accept elements of RTI may be based on very good
reasons. Here are some common reasons that teachers might
be reluctant to accept their role as RTI intervention ‘first
responders’…
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Response to Intervention
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions
• Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills necessary to
successfully implement academic or behavioral
interventions in their content-area classrooms (Fisher,
2007; Kamil et al., 2008).
• Not My Job. Teachers define their job as providing
content-area instruction. They do not believe that
providing classwide or individual academic and
behavioral interventions falls within their job description
(Kamil et al., 2008).
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Response to Intervention
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions(Cont.)
• No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
sufficient time available in classroom instruction to
implement academic or behavioral interventions (Kamil
et al., 2008; Walker, 2004).
• No Payoff. Teachers lack confidence that there will be
an adequate instructional pay-off if they put classwide
or individual academic or behavioral interventions into
place in their content-area classroom (Kamil et al.,
2008).
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Response to Intervention
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
• Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
they depart from their standard instructional practices to
adopt new classwide or individual academic or behavior
intervention strategies, they may lose behavioral control
of the classroom (Kamil et al., 2008).
• ‘Undeserving Students’. Teachers are unwilling to
invest the required effort to provide academic or
behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
(Walker, 2004) because they would rather put that time
into providing additional attention to well-behaved,
motivated students who are ‘more deserving’.
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Response to Intervention
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher: 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)
• The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
teachers regard special education services as ‘magic’
(Martens, 1993). According to this view, interventions
provided to struggling students in the general-education
classroom alone will be inadequate, and only special
education services have the power to truly benefit those
students.
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Response to Intervention
Team Activity: Engaging the Reluctant Teacher…
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Response to Intervention
Challenging Behaviors: Case Examples
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Challenging Students:
Pick Your Favorite Strategies


For the following scenario, pick your TOP
THREE ideas for managing this student’s
behavior:

Ricky sits quietly in your class but does not participate
much. He seems ‘tuned out’--but then really comes alive
when the bell rings and he can go join his friends at
lunch.

You rarely get homework from Ricky; in fact, he is in
danger of failing the course because of incomplete
assignments.
But Ricky is generally organized, can be meticulous in
his work when he chooses to, and always brings all work
materials to class.
When you look through Ricky’s cumulative folder, you
find numerous notations on past report cards saying that
he ‘needs to apply himself’ and ‘put more effort into his
work’.






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Increase 'Reinforcement' Quality
of the Classroom
Offer frequent opportunities for
choice
Select high-interest or functional
learning activities
Incorporate cooperative-learning
opportunities into instruction
Strategically schedule preferred
student activities
Give students frequent feedback
about their classroom
performance
Make a personal connection to
motivate difficult students
Reduce the 'effort' needed to
complete an academic
assignment
Create in-class incentives or payoffs for learning
Encourage student input into
classroom routines and learning
activities
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Response to Intervention
Keynote Outcomes…
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Response to Intervention
Keynote: Participant Outcomes
As a result of attending this workshop, participants will be able to:
– Motivate the struggling student through changes in the
instructional environment, social interaction, learning
activities, and reinforcement for learning.
– Select intervention strategies that increase the probability that
an unmotivated student will engage in academic activities.
– Develop the necessary school supports to encourage
students to become self-advocates with a voice in shaping
their RTI support.
– Give teachers practical ideas to establish positive connections
with all of their students.
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Response to Intervention
END
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem
Behaviors: A Key to
Identifying Effective
Interventions (pp. 7-11)
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
1.
Define the problem behavior in clear, observable, measurable
terms (Batsche et al., 2008; Upah, 2008). Write a clear description of
the problem behavior. Avoid vague problem identification statements
such as “The student is disruptive.”
A well-written problem definition should include three parts:
– Conditions. The condition(s) under which the problem is likely to
occur
– Problem Description. A specific description of the problem behavior
– Contextual information. Information about the frequency, intensity,
duration, or other dimension(s) of the behavior that provide a
context for estimating the degree to which the behavior presents a
problem in the setting(s) in which it occurs.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
2. Develop examples and non-examples of the
problem behavior (Upah, 2008). Writing both
examples and non-examples of the problem behavior
helps to resolve uncertainty about when the student’s
conduct should be classified as a problem behavior.
Examples should include the most frequent or typical
instances of the student problem behavior. Nonexamples should include any behaviors that are
acceptable conduct but might possibly be confused
with the problem behavior.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
3. Write a behavior hypothesis statement (Batsche et
al., 2008; Upah, 2008). The next step in problemsolving is to develop a hypothesis about why the
student is engaging in an undesirable behavior or not
engaging in a desired behavior. Teachers can gain
information to develop a hypothesis through direct
observation, student interview, review of student work
products, and other sources. The behavior hypothesis
statement is important because (a) it can be tested,
and (b) it provides guidance on the type(s) of
interventions that might benefit the student.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
4. Select a replacement behavior (Batsche et al.,
2008). Behavioral interventions should be focused on
increasing student skills and capacities, not simply on
suppressing problem behaviors. By selecting a
positive behavioral goal that is an appropriate
replacement for the student’s original problem
behavior, the teacher reframes the student concern in
a manner that allows for more effective intervention
planning.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
5. Write a prediction statement (Batsche et al., 2008;
Upah, 2008). The prediction statement proposes a
strategy (intervention) that is predicted to improve the
problem behavior. The importance of the prediction
statement is that it spells out specifically the expected
outcome if the strategy is successful. The formula for
writing a prediction statement is to state that if the
proposed strategy (‘Specific Action’) is adopted, then
the rate of problem behavior is expected to decrease
or increase in the desired direction.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Motivation/Behavior Problems: Activity
At your table:
• Review the 5-step process described in
the workshop for identifying and
analyzing student behavior problems.
• Discuss how your school can share this
framework with teachers.
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Response to Intervention
Improving the Integrity of
Academic Interventions
Through a
Critical-Components ‘PreFlight’ Check (pp. 12-15)
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Academic Interventions ‘Critical Components’ Checklist
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375
Response to Intervention
Academic Interventions ‘Critical Components’ Checklist
This checklist summarizes the essential components of
academic interventions. When preparing a student’s
Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic intervention plan, use this
document as a ‘pre-flight checklist’ to ensure that the
academic intervention is of high quality, is sufficiently
strong to address the identified student problem, is fully
understood and supported by the teacher, and can be
implemented with integrity. NOTE: While the checklist
refers to the ‘teacher’ as the interventionist, it can also
be used as a guide to ensure the quality of interventions
implemented by non-instructional personnel, adult
volunteers, parents, and peer (student) tutors.
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376
Response to Intervention
Allocating Sufficient Contact Time & Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher
Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two
factors that help to determine that intervention’s ‘strength’ (Yeaton & Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item?


Intervention Element
Notes
Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is
appropriate for the type and level of student problem
(Burns & Gibbons, 2008; Kratochwill, Clements &
Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of
time allocated is adequate, consider:
 Length of each intervention session.
 Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week)
 Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional
weeks)
Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient
contact from the teacher or other person delivering the
intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE:
Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be
limited to 6-7 students (Burns & Gibbons, 2008).
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Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined
clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to
understand which intervention(s) are likely to help—and which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Notes
Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the
intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995;
Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes:
 Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place
when the academic problem is observed.
 Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in
which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative
information of student performance.
 Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected
performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic
performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item?

Intervention Element
Notes
Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student
problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008). TIP: Use the Instructional
Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four
stages of learning:
 Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill
correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve
accuracy.
 Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works
slowly. Interventions should increase the student’s speed of responding (fluency)
as well as to maintain accuracy.
 Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not
typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the
student may confuse the target skill with ‘similar’ skills. Interventions should get
the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations,
or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and ‘similar’ skills.
 Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit
novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to
identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be
adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Response to Intervention
Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Notes
‘Can’t Do/Won’t Do’ Check. The teacher has determined
whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge
deficit (‘can’t do’) or whether student motivation plays a
main or supporting role in academic underperformance
(‘wont do’). If motivation appears to be a significant factor
contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes
strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning
activities; rewards/incentives; increased student choice in
academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas & Davis,
2005; Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
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Response
to Intervention
Incorporating Effective Instructional
Elements
These effective ‘building blocks’ of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They
should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element

Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down “into manageable and deliberately
sequenced steps” and the teacher provided“ overt strategies for students to learn and practice
new skills” (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008, p.1153).

Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic
task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation
(Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008).

Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in ‘active accurate
responding’ (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student
attention and to optimize effective learning.

Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work
completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008).

Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to
better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into
smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards
against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the student’s rate of
learning (Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005).
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Notes
Response to Intervention
Verifying Teacher Understanding & Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a
busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes
that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element






Notes
Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the
academic intervention(s) with integrity.
Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible
and acceptable for the identified student problem.
Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an
‘intervention script’--a series of clearly described steps—to ensure teacher understanding and
make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao & Hawkins, 2008).
Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training
has been arranged.
Intervention Elements: Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of
the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are ‘non-negotiable’
(they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are ‘negotiable’ (the teacher has some
latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao & Hawkins, 2008).
Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any
reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance
quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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to Intervention
Documenting the InterventionResponse
& Collecting
Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example,
interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are ‘fatally
flawed’ (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element
Notes

Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation
required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).

Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the
intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and
the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long
enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.

Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the student’s
baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden &
Gilbertson, 2004).

Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student
improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.

Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of
sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that
intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004).
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Response to Intervention
References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological
Consultation, 6(2), 111-123.
Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools.
Routledge: New York.
Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Boice, C. H. (2008). Best practices in intensive academic interventions. In A.
Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD: National
Association of School Psychologists.
Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D., & Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R: Research in the classroom. Columbus,
OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.
Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S., & Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for academic
interventions in real- world settings. School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., & Kalymon, K. M. (2007). Response to intervention: Conceptual and
methodological issues in implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook
of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention. New York: Springer.
Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral interventions. A systematic
process for finding and eliminating problems. School Psychology Review, 33, 363-383.
Yeaton, W. M. & Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical dimensions in the choice and maintenance of successful treatments:
Strength, integrity, and effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 156-167.
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Response to Intervention
Motivation Intervention: Case
Example
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Problem
• Justin showed a pattern from the start of the school year of not
complying with teacher requests in his English class. His
teacher, Mr. Steubin, noted that – when given a teacher
directive—Justin would sometimes fail to comply. Justin would
show no obvious signs of opposition but would sit passively or
remain engaged in his current activity, as if ignoring the
instructor.
When no task demands were made on him, Justin was typically
a quiet and somewhat distant student but otherwise appeared
to fit into the class and show appropriate behavior.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Evidence
• Student Interview. Mr. Steubin felt that he did not have a strong
relationship with the student, so he asked the counselor to talk with Justin
about why he might be non-compliant in English class. Justin told the
counselor that he was bored in the class and just didn’t like to write.
When pressed by the counselor, Justin admitted that he could do the
work in the class but chose not to.
• Direct Observation. Mr. Steubin noted that Justin was less likely to
comply with writing assignments than other in-class tasks. The likelihood
that Justin would be non-compliant tended to go up if Mr. Steubin pushed
him to comply in the presence of Justin’s peers. The odds that Justin
would comply also appeared to increase when Mr. Steubin stated his
request and walked away, rather than continuing to ‘nag’ Justin to
comply.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Evidence (Cont.)
• Work Products. Mr. Steubin knew from the assignments that he did
receive from Justin that the student had adequate writing skills. However,
Justin’s compositions tended to be short, and ideas were not always as
fully developed as they could be—as Justin was doing the minimum to
get by.
• Input from Other Teachers. Mr. Steubin checked with other teachers who
had Justin in their classes. The Spanish teacher had similar problems in
getting Justin to comply but the science teacher generally found Justin to
be a compliant and pleasant student. She noted that Justin seemed to
really like hands-on activities and that, when potentially non-compliant, he
responded well to gentle humor.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Intervention
• Mr. Steubin realized that he tended to focus most of his attention on
Justin’s non-compliance. So the student’s non compliance might be
supported by teacher attention. OR the student’s compliant behaviors
might be extinguished because Mr. Steubin did not pay attention to them.
• The teacher decided instead that Justin needed to have appropriate
consequences for non-compliance, balanced with incentives to engage in
learning tasks. Additionally, Mr. Steubin elected to give the student
attention at times that were NOT linked to non-compliance.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Intervention (Cont.)
• Appropriate Consequences for Non-Compliance. Mr. Steubin adopted a
new strategy to deal with Justin’s episodes of non-compliance. Mr.
Steubin got agreement from Justin’s parents that the student could get
access to privileges at home each day only if he had a good report from
the teacher about complying with classroom requests.
Whenever the student failed to comply within a reasonable time (1
minute) to a teacher request, Mr. Steubin would approach Justin’s desk
and quietly restate the request as a two-part ‘choice’ statement. He kept
his verbal interactions brief and neutral in tone. As part of the ‘choice’
statement, the teacher told Justin that if he did not comply, his parents
would be emailed a negative report. If Justin still did not comply, Mr.
Steubin would follow through later that day in sending the report of noncompliance to the parents.
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Response to Intervention
Teacher Command Sequence: Two-Part Choice
Statement
1. Make the request. Use simple, clear language that
the student understands.
If possible, phrase the request as a positive (do)
statement, rather than a negative (don’t) statement.
(E.g., “Justin, please start your writing assignment
now.”) Wait a reasonable time for the student to
comply (e.g., 1 minute)
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Response to Intervention
Teacher Command Sequence: Two-Part Choice
Statement
2. [If the student fails to comply] Repeat the request as
a 2-part choice. Give the student two clear choices
with clear consequences. Order the choices so that
the student hears negative consequence as the first
choice and the teacher request as the second choice.
(E.g., “Justin, I can email your parents to say that you
won’t do the class assignment or you can start the
assignment now and not have a negative report go
home. It’s your choice.”) Give the student a
reasonable time to comply (e.g., 1 minute).
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Response to Intervention
Teacher Command Sequence: Two-Part Choice
Statement
3. [If the student fails to comply] Impose the preselected negative consequence. As you impose
the consequence, ignore student questions or
complaints that appear intended to entangle you in a
power struggle.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Intervention (Cont.)
• Active Student Engagement. Mr. Steubin reasoned that he could probably
better motivate the entire class by making sure that lessons were
engaging.
He made an extra effort to build lessons around topics of high interest to
students, built in cooperative learning opportunities to engage students,
and moved the lesson along at a brisk pace. The teacher also made ‘realworld’ connections whenever he could between what was being taught in
a lesson and ways that students could apply that knowledge or skill
outside of school or in future situations.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Intervention (Cont.)
• Teacher Attention (Non-Contingent). Mr. Steubin adopted the two-by-ten
intervention (A. Mendler, 2000) as a way to jumpstart a connection with
Justin. The total time required for this strategy was 20 minutes across ten
school days.
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Response to Intervention
Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With
Students: The Two-By-Ten Intervention (Mendler, 2000)
• Make a commitment to spend 2 minutes per day
for 10 consecutive days in building a relationship
with the student…by talking about topics of
interest to the student.
Avoid discussing problems with the student’s
behaviors or schoolwork during these times.
Source: Mendler, A. N. (2000). Motivating students who don’t care. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.
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Response to Intervention
Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With
Students: The Three-to-One Intervention
(Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002)
• Give positive attention or praise to problem
students at least three times more frequently
than you reprimand them.
Give the student the attention or praise during
moments when that student is acting
appropriately. Keep track of how frequently you
give positive attention and reprimands to the
student.
Source: Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior problems in secondary
schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and
remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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Response to Intervention
Case Example: Non-Compliance
The Outcome
• The strategies adopted by Mr. Steubin did not improve Justin’s level of
compliance right away. Once the teacher had gone through the full ten
days of the ‘two by ten’ intervention, however, Mr. Steubin noticed that
Justin made more eye contact with him and even joked occasionally. And
the student’s rate of compliance then noticeably improved—but still had a
way to go.
• Mr. Steubin kept in regular contact with Justin’s parents, who admitted
about 8 days into the intervention that they were not as rigorous as they
should be in preventing him from accessing privileges at home when he
was non-compliant at school. When the teacher urged them to hold the
line at home, they said that they would –and did. Justin’s behavior
improved as a result, to the point where his level of compliance was
typical for the range of students in Mr. Steubin’s class.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
“
A journey of a thousand
miles must begin with a
single step.
”
Lao Tzu, Chinese Taoist (600 BC-531 BC)
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Response to Intervention
Student Motivation: Two Steps to Reframing the
Issue and Empowering Schools
Step 1: Redefine ‘motivation’ as academic engagement:
e.g., The student chooses “to engage in active accurate
academic responding” (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis,
2005).
Step 2: Build staff support for this mission statement:
“When a student appears unmotivated, it is the school’s
job to figure out why the student is unmotivated and to
find a way to get that student motivated.”
Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for
responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.
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Response to Intervention
Keynote Outcomes…
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Response to Intervention
Keynote: Participant Outcomes
As a result of attending this workshop, participants will be able to:
– Motivate the struggling student through changes in the
instructional environment, social interaction, learning
activities, and reinforcement for learning.
– Select intervention strategies that increase the probability that
an unmotivated student will engage in academic activities.
– Develop the necessary school supports to encourage
students to become self-advocates with a voice in shaping
their RTI support.
– Give teachers practical ideas to establish positive connections
with all of their students.
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Response to Intervention
The Unmotivated Student:
Possible Reasons: Activity
At your table:
• Review the possible
reasons for lack of
student motivation
reviewed in this
presentation.
• Discuss which of these
reasons your school
would probably be MOST
open to addressing and
which might cause some
resistance among staff.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she cannot do the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because the
‘response effort’ needed to complete the
assigned work seems too great.
The student is unmotivated because
classroom instruction does not engage.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she fails to see an adequate pay-off
to doing the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because of
low self-efficacy—lack of confidence that
he or she can do the assigned work.
The student is unmotivated because he
or she lacks a positive relationship with
the teacher.
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Response to Intervention
RTI Problem-Solving
Teams: Promoting Student
Involvement (pp. 2-6)
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Intervention Responsibilities: Examples at Teacher,
School-Wide, and Student Levels
Teacher
Student
• Take agenda to
• Signed agenda
teacher to be
• ‘Attention’ prompts
reviewed and signed
• Individual review with
students during free • Seeking help from
teachers during free
periods
periods
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School-Wide
• Lab services (math,
reading, etc.)
• Remedial course
• Homework club
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Promoting Student Involvement
• Schools should strongly consider having middle
and high school students attend and take part in
their own RTI Problem-Solving Team meetings
for two reasons. First, as students mature, their
teachers expect that they will take responsibility
in advocating for their own learning needs.
Second, students are more likely to fully commit
to RTI intervention plans if they attend the RTI
Team meeting and have a voice in the creation
of those plans.
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Promoting Student Involvement
• Before the RTI Team Meeting. The student should be
adequately prepared to attend the RTI Team meeting by first
engaging in a ‘pre-meeting’ with a school staff member whom the
student knows and trusts (e.g., school counselor, teacher,
administrator). By connecting the student with a trusted mentor
figure who can help that student to navigate the RTI process, the
school improves the odds that the disengaged or unmotivated
student will feel an increased sense of connection and
commitment to their own school performance (Bridgeland,
DiIulio, & Morison, 2006).
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Promoting Student Involvement
• A student RTI ‘pre-meeting’ can be quite brief, lasting perhaps 15-20
minutes. Here is a simple agenda for the meeting:
• Share information about the student problem(s).
• Describe the purpose and steps of the RTI Problem-Solving Team
meeting.
• Stress the student’s importance in the intervention plan.
• Have the student describe his or her learning needs.
• Invite the student to attend the RTI Team meeting.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Promoting Student Involvement
• During the RTI Team Meeting. If the student agrees to attend the RTI
Team meeting, he or she participates fully in the meeting. Teachers and
other staff attending the meeting make an effort to keep the atmosphere
positive and focused on finding solutions to the student’s presenting
concern(s). As each intervention idea is discussed, the team checks in
with the student to determine that the student (a) fully understands how
to access or participate in the intervention element being proposed and
(b) is willing to take part in that intervention element. If the student
appears hesitant or resistant, the team should work with the student
either to win the student over to the proposed intervention idea or to find
an alternative intervention that will accomplish the same goal.
• At the end of the RTI Team meeting, each of the intervention ideas that is
dependent on student participation for success is copied into the School
Success Intervention Plan.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI: Promoting Student Involvement
• After the RTI Team Meeting. If the school discovers that the student is
not carrying out his or her responsibilities as spelled out by the
intervention plan, it is recommended that the staff member assigned as
the RTI contact meet with the student and parent. At that meeting, the
adult contact checks with the student to make sure that:
• the intervention plan continues to be relevant and appropriate for
addressing the student’s academic or behavioral needs
• the student understands and call access all intervention elements
outlined on the School Success Intervention Plan.
• adults participating in the intervention plan (e.g., classroom teachers) are
carrying out their parts of the plan.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Interventions to
Help Study Skills
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Response to Intervention
Managing Test Anxiety: Ideas for Students
Intended Purpose:
Students may become anxious in testing situations
because they have never learned effective note-taking,
study, and test-taking skills. This package maps out a
comprehensive strategy for any student to follow when
preparing for an important examination.
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Response to Intervention
Managing Test Anxiety: Ideas for Students
Doing well on a test starts with careful preparation. Students
should have the essential skills to:
• Study effectively.
• Memorize instructional content.
• Reduce test anxiety.
• Adopt a ‘smart’ approach to test-taking.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Effective Study Habits
It is not enough just to schedule lots of study time. You
also need to make sure that you use effective study
techniques. Some smart study tips are to:
• Create a quiet, neat study area.
• Study from good notes.
• Use bits of unexpected free time to study.
• Make a study schedule to avoid ‘time-drains’.
• Take advantage of your peak energy levels.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Effective Study Habits
(Cont.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Create a study group.
Teach content as a ‘learning check’.
Recite information aloud.
Pose difficult questions.
Don’t forget to review previously learned material.
Avoid cram sessions.
Reward yourself.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Tips to Memorize
Content
The best way to remember information from your notes or
reading is to set aside enough time to study it well. Some tips
for memorizing information are to:
• Read and review using SQ3R : (1) Survey the chapter, (2)
Create Questions based on chapter headings(3) Read
through the chapter (4) Recite the questions and answer
aloud; (5) Review your answers.
• Make up flashcards.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Tips to Memorize
Content (Cont.)
• Create acronyms or acrostics: e.g.,RedOrange-Yellow-Green-Blue-Indigo-Violet
=ROY G. BIV.
• Use visualization tricks: Chaining.
• Use visualization tricks: Familiar places.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Reducing Test Anxiety
A little nervousness before a test can be good
—but when we become too anxious that anxiety can
undermine our confidence and interfere with our ability to solve
problems. Some tips to reduce test anxiety are to:
• Remember to take care of yourself first.
• Take practice exams.
• Come prepared.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Reducing Test Anxiety
(Cont.)
•
•
Make an effort to relax periodically during
the test.
1. Take several deep breaths.
2. Tense your muscles, hold, relax.
3. Think of a peaceful, quiet setting (e.g., the beach).
Engage in positive self-talk.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Test-Taking Strategies
Become familiar with the test that you are about to take and
have a mental plan for how you will spend your time most
productively during the examination. Here are some useful
test-taking strategies:
• Listen carefully to directions.
• Perform a ‘brain dump’.
• Preview the test.
• Multiple-choice: Don’t get sidetracked looking for patterns of
answers.
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Response to Intervention
Student Tips: Test-Taking Strategies
(Cont.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Multiple-choice: Don’t rush.
Essay questions: Underline key terms.
Essay questions: Outline your answer before you write it.
When in doubt…guess!
Skip difficult items until last.
Use leftover time to check answers.
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Response to Intervention
Teacher Ideas for Introducing
‘Managing Test Anxiety: Ideas for
Students’
1. Brainstorm with students their best ideas for (a) studying, (b)
memorizing course content, (c) handling test anxiety, and (d)
savvy test-taking. Write down these ideas.
2. Using class-generated ideas and test-tips handout, have
students write up their own ‘test-readiness’ plan.
3. When a test is coming up, remind the students to use their
personal test-prep strategies. Debrief after the test about the
effectiveness of various approaches.
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Helping
Students to Master
Course Content
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes
• Description: The student is given a copy of notes
summarizing content from a class lecture or assigned
reading. Blanks are inserted in the notes where key
facts or concepts should appear. As information is
covered during lecture or in a reading assignment, the
student writes missing content into blanks to complete
the guided notes. Guided notes promote active
engagement during lecture or independent reading,
provide full and accurate notes for use as a study guide,
and help students to identify the most important
information covered (Heward, 2001).
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Keep guided note entries brief. Shorter guided note entries
promote student understanding of content as well as or better
than longer entries (Konrad, Joseph & Eveleigh, 2009). Also,
short entries can increase student motivation to write in
responses.
• Distribute entry items throughout the guided notes. Guided
notes help to promote active student engagement during lecture
or reading (Heward, 2001). When entry items are distributed
evenly throughout the guided notes, they require higher rates of
active student responding (Konrad, Joseph & Eveleigh, 2009),
which can both promote mastery of content and increase levels
of on-task behavior.
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Verify student completion of notes. To ensure that students are
actively engaged in completing guided notes, the instructor can
occasionally collect and review them for accuracy and
completeness (on a random and unpredictable schedule).
• Have students tally notes-review sessions. Guided notes are a
powerful tool for reviewing course content. Students can be
encouraged to write a checkmark on the cover of a set of
completed guided notes each time that they review them
(Lazarus, 1996). These tallies assist students to monitor
whether they have adequately reviewed those notes in
preparation for quizzes and tests.
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Response to Intervention
Guided Notes: Recommendations
• Fade the use of guided notes. As the class becomes more
proficient at note-taking, the instructor can gradually 'fade' the
use of guided notes by providing less pre-formatted notescontent and requiring that students write a larger share of the
notes on their own (Heward, 1996).
• Give students responsibility for creating guided notes. Teachers
may discover that they can hand some responsibility to their
students to prepare guided-notes. For example, as a
cooperative-learning exercise, a group of students might be
assigned a chapter-section from a biology text and asked to
compose a set of guided notes based on its content. The
teacher can then review and edit the notes as needed.
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract
Intended Purpose:
This homework contract intervention (adapted
from Miller & Kelly, 1994) uses goal-setting, a
written contract, and rewards to boost student
completion (and accuracy) of homework.
Students also learn the valuable skills of
breaking down academic assignments into
smaller, more manageable subtasks and setting
priorities for work completion.
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Response to Intervention
Homework
Contract:
Form
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract
1. Parents are trained to be supportive ‘homework
coaches’.
2. The parent creates a homework reward system for
the child.
3. The parent negotiates the homework contract
program with the child.
4. The parent and child fill out the Daily Homework
Contract.
5. The parent checks the child’s homework completion,
delivers nightly & weekly rewards.
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Response to Intervention
Homework Contract:
Tips & Troubleshooting
• If the parent finds the Homework Contract program
too burdensome, have an afterschool program
implement it.
• The teacher may choose to monitor homework
completion and send a note home to the parent, who
provides the reward.
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Response to Intervention
Mini-Skills Moment:
‘Academic Enabler’ Observational Checklists:
Measuring Students’ Ability to Manage Their Own
Learning (pp.2-6)
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important?
Student academic success requires more than
content knowledge or mastery of a collection of
cognitive strategies. Academic accomplishment
depends also on a set of ancillary skills and
attributes called ‘academic enablers’ (DiPerna,
2006). Examples of academic enablers include:
–
–
–
–
–
Study skills
Homework completion
Cooperative learning skills
Organization
Independent seatwork
Source: DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention
services in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important? (Cont.)
Because academic enablers are often described
as broad skill sets, however, they can be
challenging to define in clear, specific,
measureable terms. A useful method for defining
a global academic enabling skill is to break it
down into a checklist of component sub-skills--a
process known as ‘discrete categorization’
(Kazdin, 1989). An observer can then use the
checklist to note whether a student successfully
displays each of the sub-skills.
Source: Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important? (Cont.)
Observational checklists that define academic
enabling skills have several uses in Response to
Intervention:
– Classroom teachers can use these skills checklists as convenient
tools to assess whether a student possesses the minimum ‘starter
set’ of academic enabling skills needed for classroom success.
– Teachers or tutors can share examples of academic-enabler skills
checklists with students, training them in each of the sub-skills and
encouraging them to use the checklists independently to take
greater responsibility for their own learning.
– Teachers or other observers can use the academic enabler
checklists periodically to monitor student progress during
interventions--assessing formatively whether the student is using
Source: Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
more of the sub-skills.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
Activity: Academic Enablers
Observational Checklist
At your tables:
Review the ‘Academic Enablers’ Observational Checklists.
• What are some uses you might have for checklists that map
out students’ academic-support skills?
• How could you use the existing examples or adapt the
general format to create your own observational
checklists?
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