Observation
KNR 279
Stumbo, 2002
Observation as Assessment
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Therapist observes client’s behaviors
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Directly
Indirectly
Primary reason is to record behavior
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Not perceptions/thoughts/feelings/motives like in interview
Looks at behavior in as real life situations as possible
Typically uses recording systems to shorten
time recording observations
Advantages? Disadvantages?
ADVANTAGES
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Record behaviors that occur naturally in the
environment
Generalize behaviors to community
Can be used with children or others with
verbal or thought processing problems
DISADVANTAGES
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Cost in staff time
Fitting observer unobtrusively into setting
Potential subjectivity or bias of observer
Determining meaningful behaviors to observe
Inability to determine meaning
Systematic Observation
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Differs from casual observation
Has a specific purpose
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Collect data about clients
Targets certain behaviors
Records behaviors systematically
Has concerns of reliability & validity
USE SYSTEMATIC
OBSERVATION TO:
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Document typical client performance or
behavior
Document unusual behavior
Confirm results of another assessment
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Triangulation
Compare clients’ behaviors
Steps to Developing
Systematic Observations
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Determine sample behavior that is important to
observe
Determine procedures for collecting, organizing, &
analyzing data
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Who, where, for how long, under what circumstances, how many
occasions
Record behavior immediately to minimize dependence on memory
& preserve detail of behavior
Determine conditions under which behavior will be
observed
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Natural (e.g., community outing) or contrived
Obtrusive or unobtrusive
Mechanical (e.g., videotape) or human
Steps to Developing
Systematic Observations
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Determine data collection instrument
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Recording methods
Recording techniques
Pilot test
Reliability
Validity
Protocol
Train staff as observers
OBSERVATIONAL
RECORDING METHODS
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Checklists
Rating scales
Anecdotal records
Critical incident reports
CHECKLISTS
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Record if present or absent
Useful to assess mastery of concrete learning
tasks
Leave little room for interpretations
Easy to administer, score, interpret
Inter-rater reliability tends to be high
Difficult to define behaviors
RATING SCALE
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Similar to checklists, but can indicate degree
Fairly easy to administer and score if wellconstructed
Hard to construct
Personal biases enter into rating
Between 4-6 points should be provided
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
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Provide snapshots of actual behavior in
natural situations that are significant indicator
of total behavior
Allows recording of environment,
antecedents, and consequences of behaviors
Allow recording in non-standardized form
Can be time consuming
Hard to be objective
ANECDOTAL RECORDS cont.
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Difficulty in deciding level of detail to record
Inconsistent wording used
Difficulty collating and analyzing
Determine in advance what to observe, but
be alert for unusual behavior
Develop procedures for coding
Train observers
Critical Incident Reports
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Differ from anecdotal records
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Used to record unusual situations/behaviors
Recording antecedents, behavior, and
consequences is required
Factual information kept separate from
interpretation
Often used in SRAs for behavior management
plans
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See Stumbo, 2002, p. 229
OBSERVATION RECORDING
TECHNIQUES
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Frequency/tally
Duration
Interval
Instantaneous time sampling
Frequency/Tally
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Records number of times a behavior occurs
Behavior needs to be clearly defined
Need to determine if behaviors are significant
enough to observe
Can use if observe more than one person at
a time
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See Stumbo, 2002, p. 230
Duration
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Used when length of behavior is important
Stop watch can be used
Behaviors must be clearly defined &
observable for a period of time
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See Stumbo, 2002, p. 231
Interval
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Focuses on frequency and duration of
behaviors
Determine size of intervals on basis of how
often the behavior occurs
If behavior occurs in interval, mark is
recorded
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Stumbo, 2002, p. 232
Instantaneous Time Sampling
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Used when observer enters & exits
observation area periodically
Observer does not have time for lengthy
observation
Many individuals can be observed at once
Patterns of behavior is important
Look for absence or presence of behavior
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See Stumbo, 2002, p. 233