Captivity Narratives
by: Abrianna Warner
What are Captivity Narratives?
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Captivity Narratives are the many stories of people captured by uncivilized, savage, or
barbarian-like enemies. The narratives often include a theme of redemption by faith in the
face of the threats and temptations of an alien way of life(VanSpanckeren).
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In America, women captives were typical and were sought out by Native Americans.
Quoted Authors and Events
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As quoted by Richard Slotkin, “a single individual, usually a woman, stands passively under the strokes of
evil, awaiting rescue by the grace of God. The sufferer represents the whole, chastened body of Puritan
society; and the temporary bondage of the captive to the Indian is dual paradigm-- of the bondage of the
soul to the flesh and the temptations arising from original sin, and of the self-exile of the English Israel
from England.”
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Statistics have shown that the number of captives captured between the 15 th and 19th century are
inconsistent because of counterfactual record-keeping and the disappearing of many hostages(DerounianStodola).
Universal Captivity Narratives of 15th19th Centuries
During this period Native Americans faced many problems with Americans through military acts, religion, and
disagreements in styles of civilization (Baepler). Pike stated, “Many white American families were violently kidnapped by
Native Americans with hopes of Indianization.” Due to the differential treatment of captives, men were much more likely to
be killed than women; many of the first-person accounts were authored by women (Pike). The threat of sexual assault on
white women by Native American men, often acted as forced marriage, encouraged many of the most popular captivity
narratives (Baepler). Nineteenth century narratives focused more on political and cultural views, whether violently antiIndian or more regretful (Green). The captivity narrative reflected and contributed significantly to the self-conception of the
nation, and became a major genre in early American literature (Dewsbury). Green declared that Colonial America, and later
the United States, inherited the centuries old ideological schism between Christianity and Islam (Dewsbury). The majority of
written captivity accounts appear in the colonies near the end of the American War of Independence when the vulnerable new
nation lost its British naval protection (Baepler). The most popular Barbary captivity narrative in the United States was James
Riley's best-selling account of his capture by North African "wandering Arabs (Green).
Green, and Keith Michael. "Master Narratives: Captivity and Nineteenth-Century American Autobiographical Writing, 1816-1861.
: Deep Blue at the University of Michigan." Home : Deep Blue at the University of Michigan. Deep Blue- University of
Michigan, 2007. Web. 04 Feb. 2011. http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/57665
In this exposition Green explores the relationship between historical captivity, autobiographies, and biographies in
U. S history between 1816- 1861. He relates it to larger narratives of national, racial and social identity formation. In the
passage Green includes listings of Indian captivity accounts, North African captivity narratives, African American slave
narratives, and prison narrative genres. These genres of captivity have been thought of as privation, annihilation, and
domination for many centuries. Many American captivity incidents have occurred in the U. S’ troops and characterized
submission, bondage, and captivity acts. Green denotes that captivity discloses informs the production of autobiographical
writing and self-representations as American. It is also argued that the context and thematics of captivity were fundamental to
the operations of autobiographical writing, national subjectivity, gendered identity, and racial identity in the antebellum U.S.
In his final statement he concludes that had not these captivity periods taken place American Literature would not be what it
is today. Utilizing Green’s facts and opinions, I may include the genres of captivity between the 15th and 19th centuries, harsh
conditions that the captives faced, and how the issues were viewed by American citizens. Social, Racial, and National issues
played a key role in captivity narratives as well.
Baepler, Paul. "The Barbary Captivity Narrative in American Culture.(Critical Essay) - Early American Literature | HighBeam
Research - FREE Trial." Research - Articles - Journals | Find Research Fast at HighBeam Research. University of North
Carolina Press, 1995. Web. 03 Feb. 2011. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-122325372.html
In Baepler’s article “The Barbary captivity narrative in American culture” he commences by painting an image of a
photograph of a drinking fountain which has a "whites only" sign enduring images of racial antagonism in the twentieth
century. Baepler focuses more on Slave Captivity in America. Stories of the white slaves in Africa, which pre-dates the
exposition of Indian captivity narratives and American slave narratives, furthermore adds to the contexts for comprehending
the cultural exchange among Africa, America, and England. A very popular and successful Barbary captivity narrative in the
U. S was “wandering Arabs” by James Riley. It has been credited as one of the influences that shaped the president's opinion
of slavery in the United States in 1817. The U. S’ earliest authors in North America Barbary Captivity stories were Abraham
Browne and Joshua Gee. The two authors experienced captivity hands-on and became well known as the earliest survivors.
Browne was captured by the Moroccan Tribe but was fortunate to find a kind-hearted master who gave him relatively easy
tasks and chores. Gee's narrative tells of the six years he spent in Algiers and his detailed voyages aboard several of the
notorious slave ships, kitchens and cook rooms.
The Captivity Narrative in American Culture
During the Cold War Period of American history many citizens were subjected missing. Many Americans blamed it
on Soviet spies and even alien abductions(Campbell). The Manchurian Candidate included ideas of brainwashing which
contributed to new vocabulary describing the development of psychological warfare. Many also feared hybridization from the
so-called “aliens.” In 1910, films focused on young white women abducted for the purposes of sex trafficking. Even in the
1960’s Hollywood Western films cowboys portrayed captivity to the Indians on the frontiers. Historians later establish that
the white slavery scare was a moral panic that did not reflect realities. White slavery plays and films often claimed to be
didactic, yet were often condemned as sensationalistic. Most American adults feared their children would turn to hippie mind
control and they’d lose to a younger sub cultural group. Equiano states that from from the 1980s to today’s world, electronic
media disseminate stories of young white women under threat. He also recalls that in 2003 an African American female
soldier by the name of Jessica was rescued from a lynching in Iraq. America soon became able to acknowledge Captivity
Narratives as propaganda for the war on terror. Still today many countries and individuals use captivity as threats to their
enemies in forms of threats, terrorism, and other tactics(Campbell).
The Captivity Narrative in American Culture « American Civilization." American Civilization. 10 Sept. 2008. Web. 04 Feb. 2011.
http://amciv.wordpress.com/2008/09/10/the-captivity-narrative-in-american-culture/
On the website Equiano states the struggles women faced during New England’s 17th century captivity cases. He
also goes into detail about several novels and narratives that came out in the 1800s and how they later lead to comparisons
with American figures. Barbary captivity was very well known during this time and was referred to as “Algerian Prison
Fraud.” Two-thirds of the colonists became indentured servants. There was a fear that women would be seduced to the Native
side due to the limits of European patriarchy and their sex. The information can be applied and used in this abstract by
including the dangers women faced sexually, economically, and in their everyday lives during the century. It will also be
notified that the acts of captivity spread from just the European race to many others including the Chinese, Arabs, Russian
Jews, Mexicans, and half-Hindu-half-Spanish natives. These acts became known by the common people as The Great war on
White Slavery. Captivity narratives became more violent, lurid, and ideological. Propaganda was encouraged as work of
genocide towards native Americans.
Campell, Donna M. "Early American Captivity Narratives." Washington State University - Pullman, Washington. Washington State
University, 21 Mar. 2010. Web. 03 Feb. 2011. http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/captive.htm
Mary Rowlandson was born and raised in England from 1637 to1638. She sailed for Salem in 1639 with her parents
John and Joan White. Mary later married a minister, Joseph Rowlandson, in 1654. Mary and Joseph Later had three children;
their names were Joseph, Mary, and Sarah. When their three children were captured they were at the ages of 14, 10, and six.
In 1675 Mary Rowlandson was captured and her husband went to Boston to beg for help from the Massachusetts General
Assembly. After being released, Mary moved to Wethersfield, Connecticut in 1677. After his preaching and disputing, Joseph
Rowlandson died November 24th of 1678. Mary Rowlandson remarried to Captain Samuel Talcott August 6 1679 and he died
in 1691; Mary outlived her loved ones until 1710. Later her son Joseph got his brother-in-law drunk and sold him into
bondage in Virginia. Mary travelled150 miles from Lancaster to Menamaset, north to Northfield, and then across the
Connecticut River to meet with King Philip/Metacomet( sachem of the Wampanoags). Next she traveled up into southwestern
New Hampshire, south to Menamaset, and north to Mount Wachusett to avoid future capture. Mary’s captivity narrative is
beneficial in that it may be used to inform of actual witnesses to the bondage stories in this century.
Religious expression
Within the 1500th through the 1900th centuries and the Middle Ages religious implications were applied to
most aspects of life including astronomy, politics, history, math’s and sciences, theory, and physiological
thinking(Dewsbury). Tillich states that Christianity was used as conception for the non-spiritual domain in Greece,
Rome, and Egypt. Colonial America and later the United States were encouraged by the century’s schism debate of
theory with Christianity and Islam. During the Renaissance period there was a division between Enlightenment and
Protestantism against the Catholic Church (Tillich). Tillich later declares that the Roman Church denied all other
ideas and religions against their own including the social ethics of the Catholic Church, socialism, fascism,
nationalism, and communism. In Dewsbury’s introduction to captivity narratives, she gets more into how the
differences of customs, religions and beliefs attributed to the capturing of captives. At first captivity began very
mellow and victims were given easy tasks; Once people began to recognize them as uncivilized kidnappings became
more brutal and violent (Dewsbury). By using the information from Dewsbury and Tillich in my abstracts it can be
included about the contrasts of belief between regions, countries, and social groups as well as how religion played a
major role in captivity and these centuries out-look on life.
Tillich, Paul, and Robert Scharlemann. "Writings on Religion." Google Books. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.
<http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnGd0FXq2PIC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308&dq=Religious
elements/implications&source=bl&ots=T3zd5lZbW0&sig=pG1F30HHpNDoY23v_Xom8r2UT3Q&hl=en&ei=GcV_TZShM
42Ctge-2KHhCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false>.
In his Systematic Theology course Tillich explores Christian theology and how it affected societies world-wide
during the middle Ages. He distinguishes that most cultures recognize their God as an immense standing than the world’s
everyday being. As stated by Tillich, the “riddle of history” has caused much conflict between nations and in life in general.
Man’s belief in an eternal after-life has brought amongst the world much chaos because one can be very careless and carefree
in actions; many do not strive for a morally right lifestyle. Reason and revelation or word of mouth have twisted many of the
original beliefs and no one really knows what people of centuries ago meant for us to know; we can only assume and hope
that stories, documents, telling, and other religious aspects were faithfully passed down from one generation to the next.
Atheists’ ideas and beliefs that religions and cultures are just handed and passed down myths or rather folk tales are logical
beliefs; it’s the mind-set: “why should I believe someone from decades and centuries ago when there’s no evidence or proof
that these events occurred and when the people of those times didn’t have the technology of today to prove it.” For ages there
has been division between believers, non-believers, and one’s with science. It will be much or later or possibly never before
anyone figures out whether or not there is a higher power; but even in concluding so, it will take much evidence and
convincing before the entire world comes to that conclusion.
Dewsbury, Suzanne. "Nineteenth-Century Captivity Narratives Criticism." ENotes - Literature Study Guides, Lesson Plans, and
More. Gale Cengage, 2006. Web. 03 Feb. 2011. http://www.enotes.com/nineteenth-century-criticism/nineteenth-centurycaptivity-narratives
In her introduction to 19th century captivity narratives Dewsbury states that they reflect the diversity and complexity
of American self-images at the turn of the century when the United States began to shape itself into a new nation.
Contradicting in statement, she acknowledges how while many stories describe the brutality and cruelty of captivity, others
instead portrayed their captors as gentle and benevolent. The earliest narratives typically were autobiographies of captives
returned and exchanged through rescue. For example, in James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans, the Mohican
tribe was traded for labor but things got out of hand and turned for the worst: violence. The century also turned to the risings
of abolitionists who drew parallels of differences between the white capturing of the period and African American slavery
acts done by this race that already experienced the same doings. It’s acknowledged that men were more likely to be killed
over women and children. Ironically many of the first person justifications were conceived by women. Women were said to
experience a freedom that couldn’t be found in a civilized society. A common form of captivity was the sexual assault threats
by Native American men to White American women which usually ended in an arranged marriage.
Bureaucratic belief
The acts of captivity were sought for revenge, replacement of tribal numbers decimated by war and disease, and
ransom (Campbell). Later they were called upon for religious differences, American expansions westward, and as a symbol of
American heritage. Campbell states that there were divisions between the English in Virginia, the French and Indians, the
Spanish and Indians, and the Puritans against the satanic utopia religious group. Tormenting, the separating of families and
adoption were all acts and deeds carried out by the capturers (Campbell). In a political view, many took advantage of
captivity to play major roles in society, become popular and well-known authors, and create a new era of popular literature.
In 1980, Frederick Turner’s Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness explains the effects of some
captivity narratives in which the white captive comes to prefer and eventually adopt a Native American way of life. Because
of the competition between the French and English in North America, colonists in New England were frequently taken
captive by Indians. The Puritans tended to write narratives with negative images of the 'Indian' to show that the captivity was
a warning from God concerning the state of the Puritans' souls, and that God was the only hope for redemption.
Lewis, Jone Johnson. "Women Captives and Indian Captivity Narratives." Women's History - Comprehensive Women's History
Research Guide. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.
<http://womenshistory.about.com/od/indiancaptivitynarratives/a/indian_captivity_narratives.htm>.
In Lewis’ article, he states that the Women Captives and Indian Captivity Narratives stereotyped Indians and settlers
as western expansion became more popular. In the American society it was expected that men were the protectors of the
women and children and they were very offended by the Native Americans putting an end to this tradition. Politicians used
political propaganda to portray the Native Americans as criminals, in-human beings, savages, and uncivilized persons. In
opposition, abolitionists used captivity as emotional appeal to encourage the improving of women’s rights and better
treatment to slaves. The narratives went against the objective truth and many used them to their advantage to increase book
sales.
Pike, Sarah M. "Dark Teens and Born-again Martyrs: Captivity Narratives after Columbine — J Am Acad Relig." Oxford Journals
| Humanities | Jnl of the American Academy of Religion. Department of Religious Studies- California State University, 1996.
Web. 04 Feb. 2011. http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/77/3/647.abstract
In the article Pike recalls that captivity effected much of the youth in this period; two evil “forces” were responsible
for these doings in Columbine. The youth was effected by captivity from the colonial period to the mid-nineteenth century.
Teenagers were forced out of their comfort zones and normal routines by threat and forced to do tasks more related to their
culture and religion. Many people were in opposition to the Catholic Church in the 17th and 19th New England centuries. Teens
began movements against the captivity acts and even got the government and legislation involved. Everyone was also very
concerned with the separating of the Church and state because it determined the public school administration and behavior as
well as the public school’s dress code. Americans saw this era of teens as abnormal because they went against the normal
traditions and got away from their parents’ old routines and lifestyles.
Aesthetic Works, Figures, and Themes
The most popular Barbary captivity narrative in the United States was James Riley's best-selling account of his
capture by North African "wandering Arabs“(Baepler). It came out in at least 28 editions, spawning a sequel and an
illustrated children's edition, and is still in print today. Baepler researched that it sold nearly a million copies and the book
detailed the extraordinary story of a group of white slaves in Africa. Eley states that even young Abraham Lincoln owned a
copy of Riley's Authentic Narrative, and it was credited as one of the influences that formed the next president’s opinion of
slavery in the United States;but by the time Riley's account first appeared in 1817, the story of Barbary captivity was already
almost two centuries old in North America and even older in Europe. While not formally a Barbary captive, Captain John
Smith in his 1603 capture by the Turks sets a pattern when he is sent to Constantinople as a slave to the Princess Charatza
Tragabigzanda (Eley). Eley recalls that although Princess Chartaza, like Pocahontas after her, spared Smith from cruel
treatment, Smith nevertheless eventually killed the Princess's brother in order to escape and sought passage through Barbary.
Eley, Susan. "The Art of Captivity." The Art of Captivity. Blogspot, 27 Sept. 2010. Web. 15 Mar. 2011.
<http://theartofcaptivity.blogspot.com/>.
In Eley’s article she explores the art of captivity in today’s museums and captivity’s history. At the Art Center Gallery at
Fordham University, a painting descriptions states that the faces of governmental detainees become part of the wallpaper in
a traditional American domestic interior installed and documented by Scott. Our own self-conception risks diminishment and
limitation if we allow it to be defined by others. The artists of the museum must questions of responsibility, implications of
guilt, and evidence of denial all emerge from this exhibition. A collective understanding of the artists’ interpretations of
captivity encourages self-examination and underscores the possibility of finding moments of freedom amidst any condition of
restraint. The artist at the Fordham museum come to the conclusion that the captives and the captor all go back to the
common state of the captivity in itself.
Baepler, Paul. ""The Barbary Captivity Narrative in Early America." University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Web. 03 Feb. 2011.
http://www.jstor.org/pss/25057010
The earliest surviving North American Barbary captivity narratives are those by Abraham Browne and Joshua Gee.
Browne was taken prisoner by Moroccan corsairs in 1655 and was held approximately three months, about the same duration
as Mary Rowlandson. Paraded in the public slave markets and narrowly averting sale to "the most Crewelest man in Sally,"
Browne was fortunate to find a kind master who gave him relatively easy chores. Like Rowlandson's narrative, which would
be written and published 27 years later, Browne's is interlaced with biblical verse, and he prides himself on not converting to
the "Mohumetan Religion." He returned to Boston, where he eventually married the daughter of a wealthy merchant. Browne
may still have been alive when Mary Rowlandson returned to Boston from her captivity and when Joshua Gee set sail in
1680. Gee's fragmented narrative tells of the six years he spent in Algiers and his arduous voyages aboard several of the
notorious slave galleys. The famous judge and diarist Samuel Sewall eventually helped to arrange for his ransom, and Gee's
son went on to serve as minister alongside Cotton Mather in Boston's North Church. Mather himself wrote at least two
sermons on the evils of Barbary captivity, calling it "the most horrible Captivity in the world" (Glory 31).
Novels and Arts of Captivity
Final Word
Captivity narratives are first person nonfictional explanations written by people who have survived
experiences of being taken captive . Typically the writings were by white Americans about experiences of captivity
among Native Americans. Such narratives were an immensely popular and important form in early America, and the
captivity “motif” is kept going and transformed throughout later American literature and film. The range of captivity
narratives written before the 1800s included Indian captivities from the English, Spanish, and French traditions
which were examples of an important subgenre, and the Barbary captivity narrative which contains the earliest
responses of white American writers to encounter with the Muslim world;.