CHAPTER 3 External Analysis: Industry Structure, Competitive Forces, & Strategic Groups McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Part 1 Strategy Analysis LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model to organize and assess the impact of external forces on the firm. LO 3-2 Apply the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) model to explain the effect of industry structure on firm profitability. LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model to understand the profit potential of the firm’s industry. LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positivesum co-opetition. LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model to reveal performance differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. Chapter Case 3 Build Your Dreams (BYD) to Sidestep Entry Barriers • Changing U.S. car market More competition from outside the U.S. However, NO new entry firms in the last 2 decades High barriers to entry • BYD led by founder, Wang Chuanfu in China is entering the car market • Batteries to cars…bypassing many hurdles Electric cars have fewer parts BYD has the battery technology Selling in China, Africa, & South America Hybrid Car Video BYD Electric Vehicles • What are their chances of success? • Warren Buffet invested for 10% equity. -- Sticker price half that of a Chevy Volt. -- Many obstacles are ahead • Which PESTEL factors will be most important for electric vehicles in the 21st century? • BYD was China’s fastest-growing carmaker Sold more than 500,000 cars in 2010 Shanghai government subsidy for EVs PESTEL Framework • Political • Technological Government pressures Innovation Subsidies and incentives Diffusion Differences in countries, Research & development states, and regions • Economic • Environmental Growth rates Global warming Interest rates Sustainability Employment levels Pollution Currency exchange • Sociocultural • Legal Norms, culture, values Court system Demographics Legislation Lifestyle changes Hiring laws EXHIBIT 3.1 The Firm Embedded in Its External Environment Political Factors • Governments influence behavior of firms Subsidies for renewable energy High-mileage automobiles Investments in R&D • Campaigns by candidates for office • Taxation at local, state, federal levels • Special interest groups • Political pressure on firms Negotiations on pharmaceutical prices Modify home loans STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 3.1 UBS Relents to Pressure by U.S. Government • Large Swiss bank in trouble… U.S. government accused UBS of aiding in tax evasion Billions of dollars moved offshore Names of 52,000 U.S. citizens sought Eventually over 4,450 names were released Imperils Swiss Bank secrecy Historically, a competitive advantage 1–9 Economic Factors • Growth Rates GDP Trends • Interest Rates • Employment Levels • Inflation Rates • Currency & Money Supply • Disposable & Discretionary Income Socio-Cultural Factors • Lifestyle Changes • Career Expectations • Demographics Life expectancies Aging population Rising affluence Changes in ethnic composition More women in workforce globally • Increase in temporary workers • Geographic distribution of global population Technological Factors • • • • • • Productivity Improvements Focus of Technological Efforts Industrial Spending for R&D Patent Protection Stage of Product or Industry Digital Communications E-tailers Mobile devices • Biotechnology Genetic engineering • Nanotechnology Ecological Factors • Global Warming • Sustainable Economic Growth • Carbon Footprint • Fossil Fuel Consumption • Pollution of air and water • Toxins in food and products Business Sustainability Video Legal Factors • Antitrust Regulations • Tort Reform • Environmental Protection Laws CARB zero-emission regulation passed in 1990. GM, Toyota, and Honda all had EVs by 1997. Regulation was revoked & EVs withdrawn in 2002. • Hiring and Promotion Laws • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 • Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model to organize and assess the impact of external forces on the firm. LO 3-2 Apply the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) model to explain the effect of industry structure on firm profitability. LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model to understand the profit potential of the firm’s industry. LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positivesum co-opetition. LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model to reveal performance differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) • Perfect Competition Many small firms – commodity products Ex. Pet supply stores • Monopolistic Competition Many firms – differentiated products Ex. Computer hardware, organic foods • Oligopoly Few large firms – interdependent Ex. Express mail, soft drinks • Monopoly One supplier – often government approved Ex. Utilities for electricity, gas, and water EXHIBIT 3.2 Industry Structures along the Continuum Bank Oligopolies Video Efficient Markets • The efficient market hypothesis, in financial markets, is one in which prices reflect information instantaneously and one in which extra-ordinary profit opportunities are thus rapidly dissipated by the action of profit-seeking individuals in the market. • How well does the efficient market hypothesis for capital markets apply to product markets? If the efficient market hypothesis applied fully to product markets then we should see over time equalization in riskadjusted rates of return across industries. What do the data support? Differences in Profitability Across Industries Average Return on Equity in US Industries, 1982-1993 16.5% 90 13.8% 11.7% 100 80 First Quartile Average 22.2% Fourth Quartile Average 9.3% 70 60 Number 50 of Industries 40 Average = 14.7% Median = 13.8% 30 20 10 0 32% 30% 28% 26% 24% 22% 20% 18% 16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% Return on Equity (Percent) Note: Source: Return on Equity = Net Income / Year End Shareholders’ Equity; Analysis based on sample of 593 industries Silverman 2000 © 2005 Mara Lederman, Rotman School of Management 19 Some Industries Are More Profitable Than Differences in Profitability Across Selected Industries Others Pharmaceuticals Semiconductors ROE & ROA - Selected Industries, 1989 Dental equipment 30% Drug stores 25% Race track operations 20% Engineering services ROE ROA 15% Cable television service 10% Scheduled air transport 5% -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 Operating income / assets, 1988-95 (%) 0% Tires / Rubber Source: Pankaj Ghemawat and Jan W.Pharmaceuticals Rivkin, “Creating Competitive Advantage” © 2005 Mara Lederman, Rotman School of Management Home Appliances 20 Within Industries, Some Competitors Perform Better than Others. Differences in Profitability Within Selected Industries Semiconductor Industry IntelROE - Pharmaceutical Industry 1989 60%Texas 50% Instruments Motorola AMD 40% Analog D evices 30% National Semiconductor 20% -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 Operating income / assets, 1988-95 (%) 10% 0% Amgen AMP Eli Lilly Merck Source: Pankaj Ghemawat and Jan W. Rivkin, “Creating Competitive Advantage” © 2005 Mara Lederman, Rotman School of Management Mylan Pfizer 21 22 Decomposition of Variance in Profitability Year 2% Industry 18% Corporate parent 4% Transient 46% Business segment 30% Source: Anita M. McGahan and Michael E. Porter, “How Much Does Industry Matter Really?” Strategic Management Journal, 1997 © 2005 Mara Lederman, Rotman School of Management 23 Three Factors Determining Company Performance • Industry Context e.g., during the last two decades, companies in the airlines industry have been persistently less profitable than those in the pharmaceutical industry • National Context e.g., world’s most successful consumer electronics firms are in Japan • Company Capabilities and Strategies e.g., Wal-mart and Southwest Airlines 24 Structure-Conduct-Performance Industry Structure • Number of buyers and sellers • Degree of product differentiation • Barriers to entry • Cost structures • Vertical integration • Alliances Firm Conduct • Pricing • Advertising • R&D • Investment in plant and equipment Performance • Econ profits • Accounting profits (ratios) • NPV/DCF • MVA/EVA • Tobin’s Q 25 26 LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model to organize and assess the impact of external forces on the firm. LO 3-2 Apply the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) model to explain the effect of industry structure on firm profitability. LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model to understand the profit potential of the firm’s industry. LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positivesum co-opetition. LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model to reveal performance differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. Competitive Forces and Firm Strategy • The Five Forces Model The classic industry analysis model • Threat of Entry/Barriers to Entry Note: High barriers to entry means threat of entry is low • Power of Suppliers • Power of Buyers • Threat of Substitutes • Rivalry Among Existing Competitors EXHIBIT 3.3 Porter’s Five Forces Model 5 forces video- M. Porter Source: Porter, M. E. (2008), “The five competitive forces that shape strategy,” Harvard Business Review Barriers To Entry • The free entry and free exit assumption that works reasonably well for describing financial markets seems to be a premise that strays so far from our world of experience that the assumption impedes our understanding of real-world product competition. • Thus, empirical evidence suggests that (risk-adjusted) ROE does NOT equalize in the long run. A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • (1) Economies of Scale Product-specific economies of scale Lower setup costs as a percentage of total costs More specialized machinery and tooling (e.g., Honda) Plant-specific economies of scale Engineers’ 2/3 rule: Since the area of a sphere or cylinder varies as two-thirds power of volume, the cost of constructing process industry plants can be expected to rise as two thirds power of their output capacity. (This rule applies to petroleum refining, cement making, iron ore reduction and steel conversion). Also “economies of massed reserves” A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • Economies of Scale Multi-product economies of scale (“economies of scope”) Example: Cost (Iron, Steel) < Cost (Iron) + Cost (Steel) Key idea: Shareable input (In this case, thermal economies in the production of iron and steel) Modern examples: Aircraft, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, Household Appliances; Personal Computers, Software, Power Tools Multi-plant economies of scale Economies of multi-plant production, investment, and physical distribution. Examples of Economies of Scope • Aircraft: Common wing, nose, and tail components allow several models to be leveraged using different numbers of fuselage modules to create aircraft of different lengths and passenger capacities by Boeing and Airbus Industries. • Automobiles: The Taurus platform was leveraged to provide the basis for Taurus sedans and minivans. • Consumer Electronics: Over 160 variations of the Sony Walkman were leveraged by “mixing and matching” modular components in a few basic system designs. (“Legos”) 33 A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • (2) Experience Curve Advantages Marvin Lieberman, a management professor at UCLA, found that in the chemical industry, on average, each doubling of plant scale over time was accomplished by an 11% reduction in unit costs. Thus, there is an “89% learning curve.” (Note: The mere presence of an experience curve does not insure an entry barrier. Another critical prerequisite is that the experience be kept proprietary, and not be made available to competitors and potential entrants.) A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • (3) Intended Excess Capacity Building extra capacity for the intended purpose of deterring entrants from entering the industry. (Note: potential free-rider problems) Excess capacity deters entry by increasing the credibility of price cutting as an entry response by incumbents (ex: Dupont in the production of Titanium Dioxide for paint) “Innocent” excess capacity: Demand is cyclical; Demand falls short of expectations; Demand is expected to grow. A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • (4) Reputation A history of incumbent firms reacting aggressively to entrants may play a role in current market interactions. • (5) Product Differentiation Brand identification and customer loyalty to incumbent products may be a barrier to potential entrants (e.g., Coca-Cola). Product differentiation appears to be an important entry barrier in the market for over-the counter drugs and in the brewing industry. A Taxonomy of Barriers to Entry • (6) Capital Requirements • (7) High Switching Costs of Buyers E.g., changing may require employee retraining (e.g., IV solutions, and computer software). A Taxonomy of Barriers To Entry (8) Access to Distribution Channels The manufacturer of a new food product, for example, must persuade the retailer to give it space on the fiercely competitive supermarket shelf via promises of promotion, and intense selling efforts to retailers. (9) Favorable Access to Raw Materials and to Markets Alcoa --> bauxite Exclusive dealing arrangements Favorable geographic locations A Taxonomy of Barriers To Entry • (10) Proprietary Technology Product know how Low cost product design Patents (and other government restrictions) • (11) Exit barriers (of incumbents) can be entry barriers (to potential entrants) A Taxonomy of Barriers To Entry • High exit costs: High exogenous and endogenous sunk costs (not just high fixed costs!) High asset specificity Highly illiquid assets Low salvage value if exit occurs High switching costs Low mobility of assets Credible commitments Irreversible investment e.g., Alaskan pipeline built in 1977 at a cost of $10 billion Power of Suppliers – HIGH IF: • Dominated by a few companies • No substitutes for supplier products • Suppliers products are differentiated • Incumbents face high switching costs • Product is important input to buyer • Forward Integration is a credible threat Suppliers exert power in the industry by: threatening to raise prices or to reduce quality. Powerful suppliers can squeeze industry profitability. Power of Buyers – HIGH IF: • A few large buyers (potential collusion) • Large buyers relative to a seller (e.g., HMO power buying pharmaceuticals) • Products are standardized and undifferentiated • Buyers face few switching costs • High switching costs for sellers • Backward Integration is credible (buyer has full information) Buyers compete with the supplying industry by: Bargaining down prices Forcing higher quality Playing firms off of each other Threat of Substitutes – HIGH IF: • Substitute is good priceperformance trade-off • Buyers switching costs to substitute is low Products with similar functions limit the prices firms can charge Incumbent Rivalry– HIGH IF: • Many competitors in the industry (industry concentration is low) • Firms are of equal size • Industry growth is slow or shrinking (over-capacity is high) • Exit barriers are high Contractual obligations Geographic or historical attachments • Products and services are direct substitutes (product differentiation is low) Degree of Rivalry • Advertising battles, on the other hand, may well expand or enhance the level of product differentiation in the industry for the benefit of all firms. • In other words, advertising is not necessarily a “zero-sum” game. The Uses of Industry Analysis • Static Analysis How do we explain current rivalry and profitability? • Dynamic Analysis Where is the industry likely to be in the future? Headed In Industries Evolve over Time as the Relationships Between the Five Forces Change demand • Dynamic 5-Forces Analysis time LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model to organize and assess the impact of external forces on the firm. LO 3-2 Apply the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) model to explain the effect of industry structure on firm profitability. LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model to understand the profit potential of the firm’s industry. LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positive-sum co-opetition. LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model to reveal performance differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. 49 Substitutes and Complements • Substitute: An alternative from outside the given industry for its product or service. When its performance increases or its price falls, industry demand decreases. Plastic vs. aluminium containers Video conference vs. business travel • Complement: A product or service or competency that adds value to original product. When its performance increases or its price falls, industry demand increases. Paper for Xerox copiers iTunes for iPod music players • Complementor: If customers value your product more when combined with another firm’s product or service. Michelin tires for Ford & GM A Sixth Force -- Complementors • The biggest benefit of considering complementors is that they add a cooperative dimension to Porter’s (1980) “competitive forces” model. • “Thinking [about] complements is a different way of thinking about business. It’s about finding ways to make the pie bigger rather than fighting with competitors over a fixed pie. To benefit from this insight, think about how to expand the pie by developing new complements or making existing complements more affordable.” • Brandenburger & Nalebuff EXHIBIT 3.5 Determining Industry Attractiveness STRATEGY HIGHLIGHT 3.2 Microsoft’s Business • Microsoft has 90% share of PC operating systems They shaped the industry structure Long-term relations with Dell, HP (OEMs) Wintel standard has power over OEMs Customer switching costs high Intel chip great complement for OS Microsoft and Intel as complementors • BUT Linux & Cloud Computing…What is the future? 1–53 Changes over Time: Industry Dynamics • Industry Growth Rates Highly Variable (Exhibit 3.6) Metals and Internet Services at the top Food Production and General Merchandisers at the bottom • Structures Change too U.S. banking industry – major consolidations Big 8 accountants are now the Big 4 (Ernst & Young, Deloitte, KPMG, and PricewaterhouseCoopers) Stock brokerage firms have grown – Internet catalyst • Industry Convergence Formerly unrelated industries collide Media – newspapers, TV, movies Online business model? LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model to organize and assess the impact of external forces on the firm. LO 3-2 Apply the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) model to explain the effect of industry structure on firm profitability. LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model to understand the profit potential of the firm’s industry. LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positivesum co-opetition. LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model to reveal performance differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. Strategic Groups • Mapping Groups Auto industry example Ford, Toyota – gas BYD, Tesla – electric GM, ID best dimensions Choose two for map Locate firms on map Bubble size = market share Rivalry is strongest in the same group Some groups are more profitable than others • Mobility Barriers Firms would try to move to the profit spots BUT… Specific factors that separate groups Airlines International routes Regulations: airport slots EXHIBIT 3.7 Strategic Groups and Mobility Barrier – U.S. Airlines Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • ROE(j) = 14.7 + .050 CR4(j) + .119 [CAP/S](j) + (2.08) (1.98) 1.30 [A/S](j) +1.40 [R&D/S](j) +0.26 [GROW](j) (7.20) (2.95) (2.90) t-statistics in parentheses R-squared = .43 CR4 = 4-firm concentration R&D/S = R&D/Sales CAP/S = capital expenditures/Sales ROE = return on equity A/S = advertising/sales GROW = demand growth Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Model Specification In practice, researchers estimate a statistical model of the following form where data are aggregated to the industry level: Industry Profit Rates = f (Concentration, Barriers to Entry, Demand …) Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Model Specification Multiple regression analysis seeks to evaluate the degrees to which deviations of the dependent variable (and in this course our focus has been on profit rates as the dependent variable) from its mean are “explained by” or associated with variations in each of a set of independent or explanatory variables (e.g., concentration, barriers to entry, demand, etc.) Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Model Specification The nature of this association is captured by regression coefficients relating the profit rates in the industry of each independent variable, allowing us to determine the effect, for example, of a 10% increase in seller concentration on profit rates, holding all other explanatory variables constant (i.e., “ceteris paribus”) Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Structure-Conduct-Performance Model Specification Industry Structure Variable Predicted Sign Reason • Number of buyers and sellers • Degree of product differentiation • Barriers to entry • Cost structures • Vertical integration • Alliances Firm Conduct • Pricing • Advertising • R&D • Investment in plant and equipment CR4 + Higher concentration enables higher prices CAP/S + Capital-cost barrier to entry A/S + Advertising intensity as a product differentiation barrier to entry R&D/S + Technological know-how GROW + Demand growth leads to less likely price wars Performance • Econ profits • Accounting profits (ratios) • NPV/DCF • MVA/EVA • Tobin’s Q Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Model Specification Note that the multiple regression results are consistent with (but do not prove!) the structure-conduct-performance model. As you probably are aware from your statistics classes, there are many potential problems that can interfere with the reliable estimation of regression models, leading to incorrect inference about the statistical significance and economic importance of explanatory variables. 63 Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance • Three Potential Problems: (1) Mis-specification problems; (2) Measurement problems; and (3) Identification problems Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance (1) Mis-specification Problems: Important Variables Omitted. In our regression, the impact of substitute products, and the power of buyers and suppliers have not been included in the model specification. Irrelevant Variables Included. If you believe in “perfect capital markets” then you may question the idea of capital cost entry barriers and therefore you would question the inclusion of the independent variable [CAP/S] in the model. 65 Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance (1) Mis-specification Problems: Model assumes a linear relationship. Since the regression assumes a linear relationship, this may turn out to be a poor approximation if some of the explanatory variables (e.g., ADV/S) influence the dependent variable (i.e., ROE) in a non-linear way. Independent variable may not be truly independent. For example, not only can increased concentration affect profit rates but profit rates may affect industry concentration. Multicollinearity. If independent variables such as (ADV/S) and {R&D/S) are highly correlated, then the validity of the t-statistics come into question. 66 Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance (2) Measurement Problems: • For example, CR4 may not be the best measure of industry concentration, where the HHI is a better measure. Perhaps some performance measure other than ROE would also be better for testing the theory. Note: If the evidence is not consistent with the theory it is not necessarily the case that we abandon the theory. One of the many possibilities is that we do not have good measures of the theoretical concepts. 67 Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance (3) Identification Problems: - These problems are related to the idea that “correlation does not imply causality.” For example, you might maintain that high advertising/sales is a barrier to entry (product differentiation) strategy that causes high profit rates. The regression is consistent with Porter’s (1980) theory. Empirical Testing of Structure-Conduct (Strategy)- Performance (3) Identification Problems However, you might argue instead that high profit rates allow more discretionary spending in marketing and thus, high profit rates cause high advertising/sales. The empirical evidence is also consistent with this theory. Thus, we have an “identification problem.” The data are consistent with multiple theories and we must find more refined tests and better econometric methods in order to advance our scientific knowledge in strategic management. 69 Take-Away Concepts LO 3-1 Apply the PESTEL model for external forces. The macro environment has a wide range of domestic and global forces. The political environment describes the influence that government bodies can have on firms. The economic environment is mainly affected by five factors: growth rates, interest rates, levels of employment, price stability (inflation and deflation), and currency exchange rates. Sociocultural factors capture a society’s cultures, norms, and values. Technological factors capture the application of knowledge to create new processes and products. Ecological factors concern a firm’s regard for environmental issues such as the natural environment, global warming, and sustainable economic growth. Legal environment factors capture the official outcomes of the political processes that manifest themselves in laws, mandates, regulations, and court decisions. Take-Away Concepts LO 3-2 Apply the SCP model for industry structure. Helps explain differences in industry performance. A perfectly competitive industry is characterized by many small firms, a commodity product, low entry barriers, and no pricing power for individual firms. A monopolistic industry is characterized by many firms, a differentiated product, medium entry barriers, and some pricing power. An oligopolistic industry is characterized by few (large) firms, a differentiated product, high entry barriers, and some degree of pricing power. A monopoly exists when there is only one (large) firm supplying the market. The firm may offer a unique product, the barriers to entry are high, and the monopolist has considerable pricing power. Take-Away Concepts LO 3-3 Apply the five forces model for profit potential of industry. Five competitive forces shape an industry’s profit potential: (1) threat of entry, (2) power of suppliers, (3) power of buyers, (4) threat of substitutes, and (5) rivalry among existing competitors. The stronger a competitive force, the greater the threat it represents. The weaker the competitive force, the greater the opportunity it presents. Firm can shape industry structure through its strategy. Industry attractiveness determined by 3 pairs of forces. Take-Away Concepts LO 3-4 Describe the strategic role of complements in creating positive- sum co-opetition. Co-opetition (co-operation among competitors) can create a positivesum game, resulting in a larger pie for everyone involved. Complements increase demand for the primary product, enhancing the profit potential for the industry and the firm. Industry attractiveness can be determined by three pairs of two forces: (1) supplier and buyer power, (2) entry and exit barriers, and (3) available complements and the threat of substitutes. Attractive industries for co-opetition are characterized by high entry barriers, low exit barriers, low buyer and supplier power, a low threat of substitutes, and the availability of complements. Take-Away Concepts LO 3-5 Understand the role of industry dynamics and industry convergence in shaping the firm’s external environment. Industries are dynamic—they change over time. Different conditions prevail in different industries, directly affecting the firms competing in these industries and their profitability. In industry convergence, formerly unrelated industries begin to satisfy the same customer need. It is often brought on by technological advances. LO 3-6 Apply the strategic group model for differences between clusters of firms in the same industry. A strategic group is a set of firms within a specific industry that pursue a similar strategy in their quest for competitive advantage. Rivalry within the same group is more intense than between groups. Mobility barriers restrict movement between groups.