1945 & 1997
in The Atlantic Monthly
 As



We May Think, 1945
By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedia)
Scientific research for war?
Inventions have extended man's physical
powers rather than the powers of his mind.
 Computer


Delusion, 1997
By Todd Oppenheimer
Questioning investment in computers in
schools
1
Father of Multimedia
Dr. Vannevar Bush
As We May Think, The Atlantic Monthly, 1945
“Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort of
mechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and to coin
one at random, ``memex'' will do. A memex is a device in which an
individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and
which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding
speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his
memory.
It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a
distance, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the
top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can be
projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of
buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks like an ordinary desk.”
2
Computer Delusion
Todd Opennheimer
The Atlantic Monthly, 1997
“There is no good evidence that most uses of
computers significantly improve teaching and learning,
yet school districts are cutting programs --- music, art,
physical education --- that enrich children’s lives to make
room for this dubious nostrum…”
3
What were the visions?

先來想像一下、、、
02:10

Classroom as theater
(Slides,16mm)
 Teaching machine (TV)
 Interactive and Fun (Multimedia)
 Individualized with no boundary
(Hypermedia)
 …
Canon 電子紙
4
Classroom as Theatre
Thomas Edison, 1922
“… the motion picture is destined to
revolutionize our education system
and … in a few years it will supplant
largely, if not entirely, the use of
textbooks.”
5
Teaching Machine
Sydney Pressey, 1926
“… teaching machines are unique among instructional
aids, in that the student not merely passively listen,
watches, or reads but actively responds. And as he does
so he finds out whether his response is correct or not.
And a record may be kept which aids in improving the
materials.”
6
Television as Teaching Machine
Edward R. Murrow, 1958
“This instrument can teach, it can illuminate; yes, it can
even inspire. But it can do so only to the extent that
humans are determined to use it to those ends.
Otherwise, it is merely lights and wires in a box..”
When two vowels go walking.
01:30
7
Teaching Machine
B. F. Skinner, 1961
“A frame of textual material appearing in the square
opening is incomplete: in place of certain letters or figures
there are holes. Letters or figures can be made to appear in
these holes by moving slides... When the material has been
completed, the student checks his response… if they are
correct, moves a new frame of material into place…“
“… with the help of teaching machines and programmed
instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same
time and with same effort as in a standard classroom.“
8
Seymour Papert
The Gears of My Childhood, 1980
“What an individual can lean, and how he learns it,
depends on what models he has available…
… The computer is the Proteus of machines. Its
essence is its universality, its power to stimulate.
Because it can take on a thousand forms and can
serve a thousand functions, it can appeal to a
thousand tastes.”
9
School’s Out
Lewis Perelman, 1992
“Because the pervasive and potent impact of HL
(hyper-learning) technology, we now are
experiencing the turbulent advent of an economic
and social transformation more profound than the
industrial revolution… In the wake of the HL
revolution, the technology called ‘school’ and the
social institution commonly thought of as ‘education’
will be as obsolete and ultimately extinct as the
dinosaurs.”
10
高互動教室
中央大學, 2000
「按按按」的硬體設計採用師生慣用的紅外線遙控裝置，經由與後端教
材題庫的結合，教師可輕易運用於教學活動中，所有學生學習歷程的資料都
會在學生每按一次遙控器按鍵後，傳回後端的學習資料庫中，配合恰當的資
料統計與分析過程，老師及家長可精確了解到學生的學習情況。
01:05
Compare with teaching machine (Pressey, 1926)
11
No Significant Difference

Compiled by Thomas L.
Russell, 1999
 Foreword by Richard E.
Clark
 355 research reports,
summaries and papers
 Technology and
Distance/Self learning
12
Richard E. Clark
Media Will Never Influence Learning, 1983; 1994
“The best current evidence is that media are mere
vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence
student achievement any more than the truck that
delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.”
“… the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or
extent of distributing instruction.”
“… it was not the medium which influenced learning
but instead certain attributes of media that can be
modeled by learners and can shape the development of
unique ‘cognitive process’.”
13
台灣的發展
淡江大學 大一英文CAI
 1986 台北西松國中 英文CAI實驗教學
 1990 TANET
 1998 擴大內需方案
 2000 亞卓市EduCities
 2002 eLearning
…
 1976
14
科技決定論？
Technological Determinism
 Is
this the model you envision?
06:30
 Alternative


perspectives?
Hard Sphere vs. Soft Sphere
Hot Media vs. Cold Media
15
非關教育,很久以前的願景…
Scientific American, 1889
“… the improvement in city condition by general
adoption of the motor car can hardly overestimated.
Street clean, dustless, and odorless, with light
rubber-tired vehicles moving swiftly and noiselessly
over smooth expanse, would eliminate a great part
of the nervousness, distraction, and strain of
modern metropolitan life.”
16
Started with A Question
What happens to students and teachers
when they have access to technology
whenever they need it?
1995, The Apple Classroom of Tomorrow (ACOT) Project
17
What Research Has to Say?
 John

Cradler (1996)
1990-1994 Summary
 Thomas

Learning “from” and “with” technology
 John

C. Reeves (1998)
Schacter (1999)
Analysis of 5 large studies (meta-analysis),
additionally 2 smaller studies using newer
technologies
18
John Cradler, 1996

Student Outcomes


Educator outcomes


Effectiveness of technology tends vary as a function
of curriculum content and instructional strategy
delivered by technology
Benefits of technology for teaching is generally
positive with a shift from the more traditional directive
to a more student-centered approach
Development factors

Particular features of technology-based resources are
critical for effective application; e.g., instant feedback,
correctness of responses, individualized problem
solving, built-in assessment
19
Thomas C. Reeves, 1998
Learning “from” media and technology
 Television




No conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mind
TV viewing not displaces academic activities
Positive effectiveness Instructional TV,
especially while production aided by real
teachers
No difference between live teacher and video
presentation
20
Thomas C. Reeves, 1998
Learning “from” media and technology
 Computer-based



Instruction
Positive effectiveness in general as
tutor: Motivation and Standardized
achievement test
Less time to complete a given lesson
No significant impact of intelligent
tutoring due to technical difficulties
21
Thomas C. Reeves, 1998
Learning “with” media and technology
 Great
effectiveness within
constructivist learning environment
 Representing knowledge support
deep reflective thinking
 Mindfulness and engagement
 Learning to learn, and wishing to
innovate
22
John Schacter, 1999
 Positive



Findings: (Kulik ,1994)
Students who use computer-based instruction
scored at the 64th percentile on tests of
achievement, students in the control
conditions scored at the 50th.
Students learn more in less time using CAI.
More positive attitudes.
 Negative

Findings: (Kulik ,1994)
Computers did not have positive effects in
every study areas.
23
John Schacter, 1999

Positive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998)




Students in technology rich environments
experienced positive effects on achievement in all
major subject areas.
Students in technology rich environments showed
increased achievement in preschool through higher
education for both regular and special needs children.
Students’ attitudes toward learning and self-concept
improved.
Inconclusive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998)

Levels of effectiveness of educational technology is
influenced by specific student population, software
design, educators’ role, and levels of access to
technology.
24
John Schacter, 1999

Positive Findings: (ACOT ,1994)



The ACOT experience appeared to result in new
learning experience requiring higher level reasoning
and problem solving (not conclusive)
Positive impact on students’ attitudes, and changing
teaching practices; more cooperative group and less
stand-up lecturing.
Negative Findings: (ACOT ,1994)

ACOT students performed no better than comparison
group or national norms on standardized tests
(vocabulary, math concepts, reading…)
25
Emperor’s New Clothes?
Jamie McKenzie, 1995

Too often, lower order task and basic
skills examined
 Too little work on measuring gains in
higher order skills
 Biased research; flawed methodology
 Little evidence that growth in skills
persists beyond initial “gadget stage”
26
Lack of Actual Evaluation Report
Jamie McKenzie, 1995








1980 – 8
1981 – 16
1982 – 10
1983 – 29
1984 – 25
1985 – 22
1986 – 32
1987 – 27








1988 – 27
1989 – 27
1990 – 29
1991 – 36
1992 – 13
1993 – 9
1994 – 11
1995 – 2 (incomplete year)
27
From Behaviorism to Constructivism

理論




實務




傳播理論
建構主義
情境學習理論
老師做什麼？
學生做什麼？
科技用來做什麼？
ROI評質:用什麼來肯定所有的假設？
28
Evaluation of
Return on Investment (ROI)
ROI = Benefits / Costs
Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation (1959; 1994)
29
Technology Impact on Training
 Hall,


1995 (summary of 8 studies)
CBT in business reduced training time 40-80
percent compared with traditional text-based
CBT reduced training costs 40-85 percent
compared with traditional training
 Roberts,

1991
IBM cut its annual training budget (over 1
billion) by 30 million by using CBT
30
ERIC Digest: How People Learn
Marcy P. Driscoll, Oct. 2002
 Learning
occurs in context.
 Learning is active.
 Learning is social.
 Learning is reflective.
Howard Gardner
00:32
31