CBSE-i
CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
CBSE-I
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CBSE-i
CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
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Emergence and Growth of Cities as a result of industrialization and other socio-economic process.
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Impact of urbanization.
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Case Study of any two cities-one from the developed and one from the developing countries .
The unit will enable learners to:
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Understand the process of urbanization since the emergence of civilization in the ancient period.
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Develop general awareness about emergence and characteristics of ancient and modern cities.
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Develop a clear perspective on urbanization as one of the major consequences of the Industrial
Revolution in the modern times.
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Understand the impact of urbanization on the life of city dwellers - rich as well as poor.
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Conduct a case study on any two cities of the world after a careful analysis of the factors behind their development as multicultural, modern day metropolises.
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Compare and contrast the systems, conditions of both the cities with regard to - work, housing, transport and leisure activities etc.
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Reflect upon the impact of urbanization on the environment.
Work, life and leisure are interdependent. The need to work is an essential aspect of human life. The nature of the work determines the life style. The leisure life reflects the values and character of a nation. This unit will enable the students to understand what the conditions of people were and their life styles when the cities were developing. Urbanization has been the result of continuous human development in different spheres of life. The rich as well as the poor contributed to the development of cities. Urbanization had positive and negative impacts on the natural and human environment. It would draw the attention of students towards the impacts of urbanization on natural and human environment.
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CBSE-i
CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
Development of agriculture enabled man to lead a settled life. Work, life and leisure became the need and requirement of man that led to the emergence and development of urban centers of living in the ancient, medieval as well as the modern times. These needs were of the similar nature worldwide and hence the process, problems and consequences of urbanization have also been similar in most of the countries in various parts of the world.
By taking up a case study of one city each, from the developed as well as the developing countries,
London and Delhi respectively, as discussed in this unit, one can research and do a thorough study in order to understand the factors that led to their emergence, the contrasts, contradictions, benefits of urbanization and above all, the pressure that city life puts on people and the environment. One would also get to understand and accept the fact that, not only the rich and influential contribute towards the growth of a city; the poor, the slum dwellers and the marginal people also play an equally important role in this regard.
Hence, they deserve empathy, attention and a better treatment from all of us.
While focusing on the course of urbanization in general and its impact on the natural and human environment, awareness and sensitivity needs to be developed towards this issue.
Urbanization has a long history, as the first cities of the world emerged around 3500 B.C. to 2500 B.C., though conditions required for their emergence started being set, as early as 8000 B.C. with the beginning of the permanent settlements. It was by the fourth millennium B. C. that the urban revolution had all its foundations laid and was now ready to arrive. This unit will discuss the entire process of urbanization in the ancient and the modern ages from three perspectives – work, life and leisure.
During the Neolithic period the discovery of agriculture encouraged the humans, who were food gatherers and hunters, to settle down in order to look after their agricultural establishments.
Division of labor was done and the agricultural activity was to be done by a few selected groups of people. It was the freedom from the task of arranging food supplies, which gave some people the leisure time to observe nature and think about climate, seasonal changes, hydrological cycle, ever changing skies and fury of rivers etc and come out with possible solutions to the problems related to these phenomena.
Technological developments like mining and metallurgy, making tools and implements, use of plough, potter’s wheel, handloom along with surplus production of food created the situation for further development of a complex social and economic system in these areas. It was the work and efforts of these
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CBSE-i
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL ancient communities and their observations during the leisure time that led to enhancement of their life styles and formation of human culture in the ancient period.
Historians have different views regarding the reasons that led to the emergence of these cities.
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According to the traditional view agricultural activity was an essential prerequisite for the cities to develop in a particular area, as surplus food production created scope for people to focus on other aspects of human development in their free time, once the food requirements for the village community were met.
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Some other historians are of the opinion that it
( Source: tokushinancienthistory.blogspot.com
) was the availability of surplus raw materials which encouraged trade and led to the emergence of cities around markets , along the trade routes.
(Source: atheism.about.com)
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As per another theory, the cities came up as political centers or capitals , for the purpose of performing administrative functions, having seat of the government and its important offices.
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A few scholars of history also hold the view that it was religion which played a vital role in the development of a city as they give examples of various cities of the ancient and medieval times which grew around temples, sacred places, cemeteries, shrines, monasteries and monumental buildings.
(Source: greeceathensaegeaninfo.com)
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CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
Whatever may have been the reasons behind their origin, once emerged, cities were there to stay and develop. They were living evidences of human toil and labor, expertise in variety of tasks, their recreational and social activities which they had taken up in their leisure time to develop various arts, music, writing etc.
Characteristics of old cities:
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These urban centers were larger in size and population than the surrounding areas and were comprised of the non food producing inhabitants. They were dependent upon the rural population for supply of food and conducted administrative, military, economic or non agricultural activities.
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These cities emerged in the natural form as well as in the planned manner and generally had complex social and economic systems. Town planning in these urban centers involved construction of houses, roads, government buildings, granaries and drainage system etc. and facilities like transportation, proper sanitation were made available to the city dwellers along with a variety of means for recreation.
(Source: wideurbanworld.blogspot.com)
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In a way cities created environment for the development of human culture which led to the expression of talents, intermingling of people, growth and spread of religion, development of customs and traditions.
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They also provided foundational ground for the growth of various forms of art, scientific and technological research, architectural innovation and other processes of progress and human development. It is for all these reasons that the life in these ancient cities was called a civilization.
It was probably the first stage of urbanization when man and his activities were totally dependent upon nature and had to be in accordance with it.
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CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
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At this point of time ancient civilizations developed in various parts of Asia, Africa, Europe and
Americas; Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Harappan and Chinese civilizations were some of the prominent ones.
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They emerged during the Bronze Age around 3500 B.C. and were all wet point settlements that grew in balance and cooperation with nature, in the flood plains or the fertile river valleys.
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Some of the important cities in these civilizations were Ur, Nippur, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa etc.
(Source: yorku.ca) (Source: search_and_find.oldiblog.com)
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All these first cities were temple towns dedicated to a local god and located on a comparatively raised ground. They received a regular supply of food from the surrounding villages and had huge granaries to store surplus grains.
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These were not only the religious settlements but also the centers of political authority, trade and local industry, military and cultural activity.
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They had well organized governments, efficient administrators, well framed laws, rules and regulations and some form of taxation to support a vast range of non food producing city dwellers.
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Since division of labour was one of the important aspects of urbanization, people from all walks of life and professions lived in these cities. Hence, urban population supported and absorbed various social groups such as the artisans, craftsmen, metal workers, merchants and traders, priests and scholars, musicians and performers etc.
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These dwellings witnessed construction of proper roads and streets with houses erected on their sides. A well designed irrigation system was created in the surrounding agricultural lands to provide an easy as well as a regular supply of water from the river.
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Development of a form of writing and symbolic art in order to maintain records of trade and taxation, to write laws, agreements and to stamp trading items, send messages and signals, above all, to express thoughts and emotions was also an important characteristic of these ancient cities.
(Source: bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com)
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In a few of these cities like Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro, an efficient drainage
(Source: www-user.uni-bremen.de) system was created to provide sanitation and to keep the dwellings clean. Public and governmental buildings like palaces, assembly halls, collective baths, granaries, and dams were also constructed. (Source: imagesofasia.com)
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Most of these urban centers of human habitation were planned.
Citadel - a large elevated ground dedicated to religious and state functions and a wall surrounding the city for its protection and defense were two typical features of these ancient cities.
(Source: flickr.com)
It is evident that this second stage of urbanization had reduced the impact of nature and increased the dominance of the mankind as people moved from living in fragile and temporary structures to much more durable and stronger buildings in the cities, which were made up of stones or baked bricks and could effectively protect the inhabitants from strong winds, harsh weather, fire and even from invasions for a long
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CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL period of time. They could collect water in reservoirs, dig canals to bring water supply to the cities. They could create and hold a secure base for conducting administrative and economic tasks; could travel longer and faster with the help of improved boats and ships. Storage facilities in these urban centers, canalization and irrigation relieved the community from aggression, irregularities and limitations of nature.
All this meant that now humans were no longer totally dependent on nature and could rather dominate it by creating a strong manmade environment.
Growth of population, expansion of trade and commerce, increased community interaction, intermixing of people and cultures led to enhancement of knowledge and information. With the help of stable and determined political power of the great empires, their military expeditions, complimented by their economic well being, this knowledge and technical knowhow got promoted and spread to the newly conquered lands and was synthesized with their learning and wisdom. (Source: superstock.com)
It was in the 15 th
century that Europe experienced the Age of Renaissance and enlightenment, when new architectural styles, political philosophy, and modern science were born. People developed a spirit of enquiry and started taking interest in making observations, conducting research and experiments in various fields of knowledge. As a consequence, new discoveries and inventions took place. Great technological changes and new inventions transformed the classic age of utilities into technologically advanced and a complex machine age and paved the way for the emergence of the Industrial Revolution. So, it was the continuous hard work of our ancient and medieval generations that had brought human civilization to this stage of proficiency and expertise. These developments had a deep impact on the life and livelihoods of people in Europe. Not only this, the society also underwent an overall change in order to sustain in the modern times in the totally changed circumstances.
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CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
Urbanization became more rapid as globalization spread industry and technology to all corners of the world. For example, whereas London took roughly 130 years to grow from 1 to 8 million people, Bangkok took 45 years, and
Seoul took only 25 years. Globally, urban growth was at its peak during the 1950s, with a population expansion of more than 3% per year.
Source: http://www.hiddencities.org
By the middle of the 18 th century industries developed in
England, which became the first country to be industrialized. In the 19 th century various parts of Europe experienced industrialization and it was then that the modern cities took shape. It was now the third stage of urbanization when all the limits, confines and restrictions of nature were thrown off by the modern man. ( Source: industrialrevolutioninamerica.com)
It is not that the cities were not there before the industrial revolution; in fact there were thousands of cities all over Europe by the 17 th
century, even before the invention of steam power. Growth of population played a significant role in the development of these cities.
So, one can easily conclude that industrialization did not actually create cities, it just changed their form in the contemporary period, modernized them and increased the pace of urbanization from 19 th
century onwards in order to meet the ever growing needs and demands of the increased population. Urbanization was a result of continuous human development in various spheres of life since the ancient times.
Industrialization added technological advancement and modernization to it and city life became more attractive, glaring, and full of opportunities. Advancements in the fields of transport and communication, construction and engineering also played an important role in this regard. Industrial innovations, on one hand, not only gave a boost to urbanization but also added quality of life, comfort and convenience to it.
On the other hand they raised serious environmental issues and also led to various problems of socio-economic nature. (Source: yamacanyons.net
)
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CLASS – X HISTORY
STUDENTS’ MANUAL
Modern urban centers emerged in contrast to the rural dwellings since nineteenth century, with interconnecting roads, railway tracks, sturdy bridges and magnificent buildings, new modes of transportation, glittering shops, splendid markets, big factories and industrial units, being their main attraction. All this was possible because of industrialization and technological advancement.
Urbanization became swift and rapid as globalization spread trade, industry and technology to every part of the world.
Renaissance and the age of enlightenment led to technological developments in a variety of fields like agriculture, textiles, locomotives etc but they also created conditions for political upheavals and revolutions in Europe.
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As a result of which, the feudal system, a major component of the European society in the medieval times, now started declining and led to the breakup of rigid social hierarchy. Criteria for power and political authority now shifted from the ownership of land to the ownership of money as capital.
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Along with this, agriculture in England and other parts of Europe started being mechanized as a result of industrial inventions and technological development as well as due to the increased demand for raw material in the textile industry. Big farm owners wanted to make most of the profit from this situation by increasing the quantity and quality of their produce. Hence, they mechanized their farms and started enclosing them.
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Large number of landless laborers now lost their jobs to these agricultural equipments as they were more efficient one time investments which enhanced the quantity and quality of the agricultural produce.
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Open fields of the country side, which could be used by the poor and jobless to sustain in these harsh times were now being enclosed by the big farmers as a result of the Enclosure Movement. This led to a large scale migration of the landless laborers and rural poor from villages to the towns and cities.
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People migrated to the cities either by compulsion or by choice in order to not only get jobs and improved housing but also to reach out to new means of entertainment and recreation, most
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL importantly to get rid of rural constraints and traditions. They hoped for a better future and living conditions for themselves and their family in the cities.
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Development of modern means of transport like roadways and specially the railways added to the pace of migration.
Huge mass of rural population now started migrating to nearby urban centers in an unplanned manner, in search of jobs and means to earn a livelihood. Migration was caused by the push factors that forced the people to move out from the country side as well as by the pull factors that attracted them towards the cities. In most of the cases they were the surplus farm laborers who were not required in the villages anymore and in a few cases they were forced to migrate due to political, ethnic or religious conflicts.
(Source: http://www.ehow.com)
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Industrial Revolution in Europe increased production manifold. A severe need for markets was felt, where these goods could be sold and from where raw materials to feed the industries could be bought. This led to the rise of colonialism.
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Colonial powers fulfilled their economic interests using the resources of their colonies. But in order to do so, they had to create basic infrastructure and introduce modern means of transport in order to move goods and raw material to and from the sea ports, move army and officials from one place to another. They were required to construct buildings to have their settlements and administrative offices in order to maintain a strong and long lasting control over their respective colonies.
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Political control over the colony was required along with having seat of the government at a particular place for economic reasons. All these requirements made the colonizers establish cities as a political capital, trading or military centers in their colonies especially in the countries of Asia and
Africa.
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POSITIVE EFFECTS:
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Cities created necessary infrastructure and provided better amenities and services, enhanced standard of living, improved housing facilities and health consciousness to the inhabitants.
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They developed strong economies, large scale employment and provided a lot of business opportunities. These urban areas became the centers of merit and quality which brought excellence in innovation, entrepreneurship, economic projects and academic front for the benefit of people.
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Intermingling of people led to intermixing of knowledge and cultures and resulted in knowledge spillovers, exchange of ideas and spread of new information.
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Multicultural cities promoted development of literature, music, visual and performing arts and recreational activities and contributed to the quality of urban life.
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New opportunities emerged in a variety of fields like architecture, banking, teaching, engineering etc and provided lot many choices to the people with regard to selection of profession.
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Trade unions and workers’ associations were formed which worked for the benefit and welfare of these people and later on, even started movements to demand fixed working hours and improvement in working conditions in the factories.
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Urbanization resulted in loosening of social norms and rural customs and granted some freedom to the city dwellers. For example, women could move out of the domestic sphere and work in the factories, could become writers or innovators even, though, they still had to face a lot of restrictions.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
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Urbanization had a deep impact on the environment as the entire landscape of an area being urbanized underwent a massive change. Forests had to be cleared off, hilly or elevated tracts had to be cut and leveled in order to make space for the construction of residential, official and commercial buildings, factories, roads and railway tracks etc. So, urbanization led to deforestation and environmental imbalance, which further had serious consequences.
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Unplanned migration, population explosion and rapid urban growth due to industrial development resulted in overcrowding of the cities and scarcity of living space. This further resulted in the emergence of slums and tenements. Overflowing population of the cities, emerging industries and popularity of motorized vehicles led to a sharp increase in pollution of rivers, land and atmosphere, spread of diseases and environmental degradation. For example, increased traffic created a lot of
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL congestion; Smoke from industries along with soot was a big environmental menace that led to the formation of smog and resulted in suffocation and other respiratory problems; Sewage released in rivers led to the spread of diseases and epidemics.
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Absence of a well laid sewerage system and lack of proper disposal of a large amount of industrial and human waste led to problems related to hygiene and sanitation and created unhealthy conditions of living. Maintenance of cleanliness in the city, especially in slums became a big challenge. This also created problems regarding availability of clean drinking water for urban communities.
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Huge population also resulted in inequitable and unfair distribution of wealth and resources. New social classes of capitalists, factory owners, businessmen, servants, workers and labourers emerged and created a class divide between the haves and have nots .
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Due to scarcity of living space and shortage of other commodities, cost of living became very high, forcing people to live in poverty and misery. Inequalities and gap between rich and the poor widened.
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Cities created huge contrasting images and experiences - between wealth, luxury and poverty; opportunities and disappointment: clean splendid environments and filthy slums. This happened as everyone was not fortunate enough to get a job and proper living space in the city. These factors led to an increase in crime due to want of wealth and fulfillment of basic necessities. Many of the poor had to make a living from crime.
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Urbanization led to breaking up of the joint family system and paved way for the emergence of nuclear families. Value system also deteriorated and individualism took the center stage. Children started being considered a source of low cost labour.
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Inhuman and unhealthy working conditions, long working hours, low wages, stressful life, exploitation all put together created conditions for the outbreak of socialist revolution.
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As per many historians, by the year 1750, fifteen percent of the population in England lived in towns. A century later, by the year 1850, it grew up to fifty percent and just thirty years later, in 1880 the urban population had grown to approximately eighty percent. There are various theories to explain this pattern of urban growth, but all of them directly or indirectly were linked to the industrialization of the nation, which had changed the form of urbanization by this period, whereas, most of the countries of Europe by this time were still, largely rural.
Britain was now transforming from being the centre of international trade to the centre of the manufacturing industries.
Industrial revolution led to mechanization of the textile industry and the use of steam power instead of wind or water power. This allowed the industries to move away from
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL the coast or the river side and settle in the interiors of the cities. Development of rail and roadways was an added advantage. On the other hand, with limited opportunities in the rural areas, landless agricultural laborers started migrating to the towns in large numbers and this led to their urbanization.
By mid 19 th
century Leeds and Manchester were two important industrial cities of England and
London was also in the process of growing into an urban center mainly due to migration. For instance, before 1600, London was just a normal sized city of England. Its population growth from
17 th
to 19 th
century forced it to expand outside the city walls. By the year 1750 its population was around 6, 7, 5000 persons. A little more than half a century later, by 1810 it reached the 1 million mark and by the year 1880, just 70 years later, it grew four times and attained the marked 4 million people.
The Civil war, the spread of Great Plague and the Great Fire were the three devastating events of the
17 th
century London as a result of which the old London was totally destroyed. The city had to be rebuilt after the Great fire of 1666. Reconstruction and recovery was done in a remarkable speed – timber and wood structures were replaced by the new ones made up of bricks and stones. City was re-established inspite of the disturbances like the Anglo-Dutch war, Glorious revolution and extreme winters. Most of the urban growth was now beyond the walled city in the industrial centers of the Central and Northern London.
London had all its elites and aristocrats living inside the walled city but now many buildings and alleys were constructed towards the East of the city which once had wide area covered with wide open fields. Small workplaces, factories and industrial units like glass making, metal work, ivory work, silk weaving, paper making were established here. Their spread beyond the city limits was due to low costs, lesser rents and no trade restrictions of the trading guilds. Traditional and conventional small scale manufacturing units like carpentry, tailoring, shoe-making, and printing houses continued to function within the city walls. By the middle of the 17 th
century, the rich and the influential started expanding towards the
West London. The West End, Westminster and its neighboring areas were now being dominated by the aristocrats and financially well off people who tried to get access to the Royal Court and the Parliament.
East end was considerably poorer. Despite the wide gap between the rich and the poor, both the classes had to interact and collaborate with each other in day to day life for various purposes and had to share the urban spaces. But, shifting of the government, finance, and service industries to the western parts of London and
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL manufacturing industries limiting themselves to the eastern parts created a clear divide between the rich in the west and the poor in the east.
Just as important as its growing geographical size and transport network was, there was a dramatic change in the nature of the buildings in which
Londoners lived. During the eighteenth century, and even outside the areas affected by the Great Fire of 1666, wood and lathe, plaster, waddle and daub, were replaced by bricks, stone and stucco. The streets were newly paved and the roadways carefully divided from the pavements. Street lighting first became a familiar aspect of the London scene, and then gradually, with technical developments in the design of the lamps, began to have a significant impact on people's ability to see at night. Oil lamps were replaced by gas lamps that were in their turn replaced by electric lights. Street signs and numbered houses began to appear in the 1740s, becoming commonplace by the 1770s and ubiquitous by the 1800s.
Source: http://www.oldbaileyonline.org
London was a port city with a huge dockyard which provided jobs to the city dwellers and migrants.
It was yet not industrialized, but still was remarkably modern and that is why, it was a powerful magnet for the rural population and migrants. Its expansion in the 18 th
century was due to continuous migration on a large scale as many of the migrants came from Home Counties. A large number also migrated from
Scotland, Ireland, and various other distant areas of England and slowly turned London into a metropolis, a cosmopolitan city. Death rate in the city was very high as a result of infectious diseases due to poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water in the city. Population recorded a decline but it was again balanced out by the huge mass of migrants. Urbanization of the city continued and intensified throughout the
19 th century with the arrival of the Industrial Revolution.
In the 19 th century London transformed into world’s largest city and became the capital of vast
British Empire as well as the center for global politics, finance, trade and commerce. It became wealthy because of the expansion of Britain’s colonial holdings. Increase in Britain’s land and economic holdings brought huge amount of trade and business to the city which was by now an undisputed cultural, religious and educational center also. It was the city of the wealthy elite, rich merchants and professionals, administrators, government officials, soldiers, shop keepers, skilled and semi-skilled workers, artisans, traders, casual labor, street vendors and even beggars. Many of these people were actually migrants. All these people, rich or poor, contributed to the development of the city.
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Five major industries set up in London also provided a large number of jobs to the people. These were Clothing and Footwear, Wood and Furniture, Metals and Engineering, Printing and Stationery and
Precision products such as watches surgical instruments etc. During 1914-18, the World War I was being fought and the British economy had to be supported with regular production, hence, manufacturing of electrical goods and motor cars was started in the city of London long with many other industries. More than 30% of the urban population of London was now working in these factories and industrial units’ mass production of a variety of items like uniforms, standardized goods, cotton cloth etc. But most of the industries were still traditional.
Though London was now technologically advanced and attracted thousands of migrants but all of them could not get adjusted in new technologically advanced industries of the city.
Many of them were absorbed in the traditional industries because technology could not replace these conventional industries so easily. This created a lot of scope for manual labor which was accessible in abundance, in comparison to the number of jobs available. The industrialists, factory owners and merchants could easily negotiate and fix low wages as there was no shortage of labor. It was only in 20 th century that the industries in London accepted the use of technology on a large scale. Demand for hand made goods was still on high, especially among the aristocrats and elites as these goods were considered a symbol of high status and class. Hand made goods were custom made as per individual needs, had intricate designs, and fine craftsmanship, better finish, and were available in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.
Hence, London provided jobs to workers, laborers in both the type of industries – traditional as well as technologically advanced.
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London was Britain’s capital, its largest manufacturing centre and the largest trading port and thus was also a center of all major professions, trade and commerce. It had a large population with diverse needs, many new professions like in the fields of medicine, banking, finance, law, education, and engineering developed strongly from the last decades of the
17 th
century in order to satisfy these needs. A number of schools, colleges, hospitals, law courts, civil as well as criminal emerged along with already existing shops, factories, and dock yards. East London became the home of textile mills, sugar processing industries, breweries and distilleries and other manufacturing units. Furniture workshops, upholsters, glaziers, painters were also found in the area. All these places of work and factories were unpleasant and dangerous. Working conditions were bad with long working hours and with a very low salary. Whereas, the West London became the hub of service sector with the emergence of finance companies, taverns and hotels, clubs and theatres. Growing significance of London Season among the elites created greater job opportunities for skilled craftsmen, community service workers, dance experts, coach makers, decorators etc. in the part of the city.
Most of the work available on the deck and even in the industry was lowly paid basically because of the abundance of labor. Other jobs which were of casual or seasonal nature forced the workers to remain unemployed for rest of the time of the year, which meant that they did not receive a regular income and had to look for other alternatives. At times, these poor workers had to indulge in criminal activities; some of them even resorted to begging, while others landed up in the work houses.
With the arrival of the Industrial Revolution, a large number of women were also employed in factories and mines during late 18 th
and early 19 th
centuries. But with gradual technological advancement and development, they had to lose these industrial jobs to the men folk and women were now largely restricted to a small number of occupations, out of which domestic service was overwhelmingly dominant with the tens and thousands of women working as domestic workers for the rich and bourgeoisie class.
According to the census of 1891, there were over 238,000 female domestic servants in London. The women were forced to limit themselves to the household jobs like tailoring and needle work, washing and laundering, spinning, matchbox making, street selling and casual labor. However in the 20th century, during the war period, women again got opportunities to work in the industries and offices.
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While London grew prosperous and wealthy with an increase in the number of colonies under the control of Britain, the city in the 19 th
century was also a home to thousands of poor who lived in overcrowded, insanitary and clumsy slums. The poor were burdened with the ever growing cost of food and clothing, domestic goods, fuel and living accommodation as their meager wages were not sufficient enough to bear this burden. Moreover the factory owners or industrialists did not make any provisions or take responsibility of housing these workers. Hence, they had to live in the small, shabby and unsafe rented tenements or slums.
Though poverty was noticeable in the villages and the countryside also but it was more prominent and starkly visible in the cities like London. (Source: metamute.org)
Between 1886 and 1903 Charles Booth carried out a detailed survey of life and labor in London. He was a philanthropist and successful businessman
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL involved in shipping. He became interested in the lack of accurate statistical information on poverty and he set about documenting the state of working life in
London. He argued that the introduction of an old age pension would avoid a socialist revolution taking place.
The ‘Maps Descriptive of London Poverty’ is perhaps the most distinctive end product of his survey. Each street is colored to indicate the income and social class of its inhabitants.
The seven classes are described on the legend to the maps as follows:
1.
BLACK: Lowest class. Vicious, semi-criminal.
2.
DARK BLUE: Very poor, casual. Chronic want.
3.
LIGHT BLUE: Poor. 18s. to 21s. a week for a moderate family
4.
PURPLE: Mixed. Some comfortable others poor
5.
PINK: Fairly comfortable. Good ordinary earnings.
6.
RED: Middle class. Well-to-do.
7.
YELLOW: Upper-middle and Upper classes. Wealthy.
A combination of colors - as dark blue or black, or pink and red - indicates that the street contains a fair proportion of each of the classes represented by the respective colors.
Source: http://www.thebirdtree.co.uk
During 1886-1903, Charles Booth a successful ship owner from Liverpool conducted a detailed research on the life of the poor in the eastern part of London. He used a very scientific and accurate method of investigation and research in order to present his findings in the form of a book, “ The life and labor of the
London poor
”. During his research, he even went to the extent of living with the poor working-class families in order to get first-hand experience of their living conditions and the miseries of the slum dwellers. He is considered to have used the term ‘poverty line’ for the first time in his survey. He concluded that poverty was a very serious problem in London which had to be addressed promptly. It was such an extensive problem that it could not be solved just by doing charity and philanthropy. Immediate government attention and action was required to contain it. He warned that inaction, ignorance or any delay in addressing this problem could lead to the outbreak of a socialist revolution in London. He demonstrated that poverty was caused by uncontrollable factors like unemployment, low wages, poor health and old age. He also found that there were around a million Londoners who were poor and were expected to live up to the age of 29 only.
He divided the poor into different categories depending upon their wages and occupations and suggested that these people were more likely to end up in a hospital, lunatic asylum or a work house in case their condition was not taken care of.
TH
Of every 1,000 children born in early 18th-century London, almost half died
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And if an infant did survive, it then faced the perils of childhood - namely malnourishment and ongoing abuse. Many poor children were dispatched to crowded, backbreaking "workhouses" or were apprenticed to tradesmen who used them as unpaid labourers. A Parliamentary committee reported in 1767 that only seven in 100 workhouse infants survived for three years. Stephen In wood notes in his book
that "workhouse 'apprentices' swept London's chimneys, hawked milk and fruit round its streets, and laboured unpaid in the worst branches of tailoring, shoemaking, stocking making, baking, river work and domestic service. Later in the century industrialization offered new outlets and
London pauper children were packed off to work in the cotton-spinning mills of
Lancashire and Cheshire."
Source: http://theloveforhistory.com
Though London was stylishly modern, but till the middle of the 19 th
century it was preindustrial.
Most of the manufacturing was done in the domestic workshops, handmade items were high on demand, and hence, were quite expensive. Cost of living increased. It was difficult for the poor to sustain and survive. In these conditions, anyone could easily turn towards to crime for a quick respite. This is the reason probably for which London by 1870’s, had as many as 20,000 criminals living in the city. The Metropolitan Police
Force, since its establishment in 1829, was worried about the situation of law and order in the city as the criminal activities were on a sharp increase. Social reformers and philanthropists were worried about the declining moral values. Industrialists were anxious about the unrest and indiscipline among the labor class and wanted a disciplined work force.
Throughout the 18 th
and 19 th
centuries, London had a population dominated by young men and women, and the same was reflected in the field of crime. Most of the criminal convicts, especially the ones related to the violent crimes were all young men, and in some cases young women. Since 1850’s it was noted by the Old Bailey Court that the two-thirds of the criminals were between the age of 14 to 30. Many juveniles were also pushed in to crime by their own parents due to poverty. Instant income through thefts and pick-pocketing also attracted children towards crime as it was much easier and profitable than the entire week’s hard work in the sweat shops, in the harsh working conditions that too at a very low wage. Nature of crime also changed. Before 1850’s, crime involved petty thefts, pick-pocketing, and casual stealing. But now, as the 19 th
century progressed, criminal activities came to involve forgery, fraud, robberies, murders, and violent assaults which accounted for 80% of the court’s business.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Henry Mayhew’s survey gave a true picture of 19 th century London and focused on the lives of thieves, pick-pockets, laborers, sweat shop workers, street
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL vendors, street entertainers, prostitutes, shop lifters, beggars and tricksters etc. He had interviewed every one of them and found that most of these people indulged in criminal activities in order to supplement their meager income. They were petty thieves who stole articles like lead from the roofs, food from shops, clothes, pots, pans, spoons, folks and even handkerchiefs as most of these items could be sold for a very good price. Besides tricksters and petty cheats, there were others who were experts who were more skilled like burglars, robbers and smugglers etc. who worked in groups with advanced planning and involved complicated techniques as the safes and locks were now being used by the rich and the capitalists on a regular basis and posed a greater challenge to the criminals. A whole new breed of skilled professional criminals was now expanding with the expansion of capitalist industrial economy and was learning the art of disguise, to melt into the crowd and to appear as normal respectable citizens in order to forge documents and to break the locks and safes with greater ease and expertise. Existence of police undoubtedly helped in controlling crime to some extent with the help of a well laid system of investigation, arrest and trial in the courts of law.
London Labor and the London Poor is a work of Victorian journalism by
Henry Mayhew. In the 1840s he observed, documented and described the state of working people in London for a series of articles in a newspaper, the Morning
Chronicle, that were later compiled into book form.
He interviewed everyone—beggars, street-entertainers (such as Punch and
Judy men), market traders, prostitutes, labourers, sweatshop workers, even down to the ‘mud larks’ who searched the stinking mud on the banks of the River Thames for wood, metal, rope and coal from passing ships, and the "pure-finders" who gathered dog faces to sell to tanners. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, and made detailed estimates of the numbers and income of those practicing each trade. The books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many people's lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world .
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Charles Dickens - wrote about the miseries and hardships of the poor and children in his novels.
Punishment for even smallest of the crimes were very harsh and penalties imposed were very high.
Machinery of law was uncompromising, rigid and brutal, for example, there were around 240 offences which were punishable by death. Imprisonment was not the favored option as the authorities thought it to be bringing criminals, new as well as old, in close contact with each other and encouraging criminal partnerships. Transportation and deportation to distant colonies was considered a much better option. But the condition of the society was that even such brutal punishments could not deter criminals from indulging in unlawful acts.
Various steps were taken to control urban population from entering the world of crime. Number of criminals in an area was counted, their names were registered and a strict eye was kept on their daily activities and day-to-day routine. Skilled laborers and young people willing to work were considered as the deserving poor, and were offered a
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Many acts were passed to control the situation for instance; the first Factory Act was passed in 1833 to protect the workers, the Ten Hour act was passed in 1847 to limit the working powers for women and children, employed in the factories. Reforms Acts were passed in 1832 and 1867 giving political rights to secluded group of people. Compulsory Education act was passed in 1870 in order to send children to school and to stop them from joining the league of criminals. The Elementary Education Act of 1880 made school attendance compulsory to the age of ten. Factory Act of 1902 further tried to ensure that children were kept out of industrial work.
Child labor was prevalent in the factories as children could be employed for a fewer wage and their small hands could effectively do what the grown up adults could not do with regard to handling of the machines. Children were also employed in the mines as their small body frame could easily crawl through the narrow passages in the mines. At times they were pushed into crime even by their own parents due to poverty.
HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS
London continued to develop at an exceptional rate – in geographical size, in the number of people housed and in its economic well being. But there were areas and districts of extreme poverty and squalor.
Living conditions and housing were drastically different in these areas from the ones reserved for the rich.
For an instance, the West End of London became the place of some of the most intricate, sophisticated and stylish urban architecture in Europe, where new styles of living were designed, with open streets, huge mansions, palatial and terraced houses, with separate entrance for the family, servants and the services, with separate rooms for sleeping and entertainment, that too, on separate floors. These buildings were the architectural expression of the new kind of thinking, imagination and desires of the Londoners of that time.
Whereas on the other hand, the eastern part of London housed the workers, laborers, and artisans. These areas were too crowded, filthy and full of open sewage. Houses were very small, congested, and badly built tenements, which were constructed using poor material and hence were quite weak and shabby structures which used to collapse quite often. Large families of the workers rented small rooms in these houses and lived in unhealthy and unsanitary conditions. These were the urban slums which were the breeding grounds of diseases and epidemics. Overall, one can say that East London suffered with the poor housing along with poor infrastructure.
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'PUNCH' CARTOONS
Victorian social commentators expressed their concerns at the state of the river Thames. In 1849, the Morning Chronicle newspaper was sponsored by Henry Mayhew to conduct a massive survey of Britain's working poor. His contributions highlighting the life of the poor in London were both shocking and controversial. Mayhew’s articles were later collected and published in four volumes
London Labor and the London Poor, in 1861. The magazine Punch, commented on government policy, providing moral judgments on political and social events. Founded by Mark Lemon,
Henry Mayhew and Douglas Jerrold in 1841, it championed the cause of poor and dispossessed, often through very hard-hitting cartoons. From the late 1840s to mid 1850s it focused on the appalling quality of Thames water through these cartoons.
Source: http://www.portcities.org
Moreover, in the eyes of the rich, the poor appeared to be a different race, connected by certain mutual requirements but separated by a massive cultural divide. The gap between the rich and the poor was too wide and thus in the beginning, the rich and the wealthy city dwellers continued to rally for clearing away and the outright removal of the slums. They simply felt that the large number of one room tenements in these slums inhabited by the poor, were a grave threat to public health and safety. They were the potential fire hazards which were waiting to strike anytime. Since these localities were overpopulated, badly lit and badly ventilated, and lacked sanitation –they were not only the breeding grounds for the diseases but also the foundational stones for mass discontent, social disorder, crime and civil unrest.
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London lacked any kind of system for disposing of waste until the mid-19th century. Rubbish and sewage were introduced into its rivers, earning it the names "Venice of Drains" and
"Capital of Cholera." The first covered sewers were introduced in 1858, known as the "Year of the Great Stink" because they were completely ineffectual. Nobody went anywhere near the
Thames unless they had to and the windows of the newly rebuilt Houses of Parliament were draped with sheets soaked in chloride of lime to keep the smell at bay. The savior of London, whose name is forgotten but who ought to be regarded as a national hero, was Sir Joseph
Bazalgette: his system of brick-lined sewers, linked to treatment plants and pumping stations, came into operation in the 1860s
Source: http://mural.uv.es/cehevi/victorianlondon.html
The novelist Charles Dickens visited
Canning Town in 1857. He described the squalid conditions there. People who worked at the recently opened Victoria
Docks were forced to live in a slum built on a marsh. There were few roads; no gas supply and open sewers ran through the streets.
“Rows of small houses, which may have cost for their construction eighty pounds a-piece, are built designedly and systematically with their backs to the marsh ditches; which, with one exception, are all stopped up at their outlet; and, in many parts of their course also, if there were an outlet, or if it could be said that they had any course at all. Two or three yards of clay pipe "drain" each house into the open cesspool under its back windows, when it does not happen that the house is so built as to overhang it.
In winter time every block becomes now and then an island, and you may hear a sick man, in an upper room, complain of water trickling down over his bed. Then the flood cleans the ditches,
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL lifting all their filth into itself, and spreading it over the land. No wonder that the stench of the marsh in Hallsville and Canning Town of nights is horrible.”
Source:
http://www.portcities.org.uk
But later on, the rich and the elite realized that the poor were also an important and an inseparable part of the society as they provided an army of workers for domestic and industrial purposes, and created a strong support system for the very sustenance and enjoyment of the upper strata of the society. It was because of their toil, hard work and labor that the rich could relish the pleasures of life. Hence the poor could not be ignored or discarded. It was at this time that the need for construction of houses for the low income group was realized. In 1774, the London Building Act was passed to control the haphazard and poor construction of houses. Significant steps were taken in the field of sanitation, sewer construction, street and housing improvement schemes with the emergence of Metropolitan Board of Works since 1885. According to
Charles Booth, London required rebuilding of at least 400,000 rooms to provide shelter to its poorest citizens. Later on in the 20 th
century, it was under the authority of London Country Council that housing, infrastructure, management and planning were taken care of. Mass housing schemes for workers were planned to prevent the London poor from rising into a rebellion.
Efforts were taken to release the pressure of population and congestion in the 19 th century industrial city of London. Metropolitan Board of
Works took responsibility of the reconstruction of London’s infrastructure in order to clean up the city, to control motorist, domestic, as well as industrial pollution, and to provide fresh air to the city dwellers in an attempt to decongest localities and create green open spaces. This facilitated the move to develop suburbs and the satellite towns. The people of the suburbs preferred low density housing, semi-detached from the crowded city, seeking more rural lifestyle due to which there was this gap between the city and the country side. They supported development of the Green Belts around the city in order to create clean and healthy environment with abundance of fresh air.
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The idea of garden estates and villas came up when the architect and the town planner Ebenezer put forward the plan of a garden city – full of open spaces, with ample amount of greenery around, having lost many plants and trees in the vicinity, where people could work at the best of their potential and live a peaceful and enjoyable life. Stress-free and pollution less environment of the city was considered to produce less anger, less number of cases of public aggression, and finally produce a better quality, law abiding and healthy citizens. Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker planned the garden city of New Ears Wick on the footsteps of Ebenezer Howard. New types of open spaces and parks were created for the public in east as well as western London like the Regent’s Park, Victoria Park, Fins bury Park, Black Heath, and Trafalgar Square etc.
But at the end of the day, they were the rich and the elites only who could buy these expensive houses. The workers and the laborers could not afford to buy these houses as they were beyond the workers reach. Local authorities took the responsibility of constructing around a million houses, especially the single family structures for the working class during the period between two World Wars.
Despite being self-contained and self-sufficient areas in the West-End London with ever increasing number of shops, arcades and markets, these localities were still dependent upon a large number of services to fulfill their daily needs. Thus, many a times, streets used to be crowded with hawkers, vendors and peddlers selling a variety of house hold goods. Later on mobile vans used to take daily rounds of the localities providing goods and services to the people residing in these areas, and hence adding to the congestion of the already crowded city. A large number of smaller markets sprang up throughout the city in order to sell commodities like grocery, meat and vegetables, household goods and clothing. The streets also looked full of the makeshift stands and the stalls selling food which were later on replaced by more formal eating joints, restaurants and cafes towards the latter half of the 19 th century. Many people from the poor and the working class purchased and consumed the three meals of a day from these street vending outlets only.
Even in the suburbs, in order to supply the demands and fulfill the daily needs of the newly housed
Londoners, new shops and market places emerged. Patterns of shopping became even more complex. Since
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century, shops had started having glass windows in the front, interior decoration of the shop, and its ornamentation had also become a fashion. Second half of the 19 th
century witnessed the evolution of the departmental stores and brands of commodities. With the emergence of telephone, shopping became a totally different experience after 1900’s. As current day online shopping, housewife and ladies in those days got their personal accounts created at the departmental stores, and placed their monthly or weekly orders over the phone. The doorstep delivery of the order was done within a few hours.
Extension of the city outside the walled area, beyond the normal reach of the people could simply walk to the places of their work and the development of suburbs made the new forms of public transport absolutely necessary. Unless there were good means of travelling to and from the city, people could not have been persuaded to buy houses and properties in the suburbs. The city could not have been decongested in the absence of a well laid network of public transport. London railways and roadways catered to this problem. The first railway line started operating from the London Bridge to
Greenwich in the year 1836, which was later on supported by the establishment of Great Rail
Terminal in order to link London with every corner of Britain. From 1863, the first section of
London underground railway, the first of its kind in the world was constructed. Its first line opened on 10 January 1863, between Paddington and
Farrington Street in London. Around ten thousand passengers travelled that day through the trains running at the interval of every 10 minutes. This was a revolutionary development in the field of transportation which helped in relaxing as well as controlling the over ground traffic and resulted in decongestion of the city.
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By the end of the 19 th
century, underground railways were carrying 40 million passengers a year. But this mode of transport had its own problems in the initial years and many people feared travelling underground. Use of coal in the steam engines made the experience highly suffocating. Situation improved a bit when in 1920’s and 1930’s, filtered and ionized air was injected into the system. Finally, the problems were solved with the electrification of railways later on. But, till then the discomfort had to be tolerated by the commuters.
Many people thought that these
‘Iron Monsters’
and modern devil rides created lot many problems, chaos and unhealthiness to the city. A pamphlet entitled
–“Observations on the Displacement of the Poor by
Metropolitan Railways and other Public Improvements”
was published by William Danton, in 1861, in which he argued that the investors of the project were indifferent and carefree because of the fact that “The time will pass through only the inferior property, that is through a densely peopled district, and will destroy the abode of the powerless and the poor, whilst it will avoid the properties of those whose opposition is to be dreaded – the great employers of labor”. Charles Dickens also wrote in his novel – ‘Dombey and Son’
(1848), about the destruction that the construction of underground railways had brought to the city and its poor. For an instance, to construct approximately two miles of railway, about 900 houses had to be destroyed leading to displacement of London poor on massive scale, categorically between two World
Wars? Railways simply brought whole sale destruction to many communities of the poor.
Houses were knocked down; streets broken through and stopped; deep pits and trenches dug in the ground; enormous heaps of earth and clay thrown up; . . . there were a hundred thousand shapes and substances of incompleteness, wildly mingled out their places, upside down, burrowing in the earth . . .
Many felt that all of the railway lines added to the squalor and unhealthiness of the city.
While the Underground was constructed under the premise that it was to relieve traffic, its construction led to even further blockage of roads. Foot pavements were made impassable by timber, mud, stone, bricks, sand, tools, etc. and roadways were blocked with men, machinery, earth, and the tunnels themselves. The Underground was to have increased business, but at first it succeeded only in driving people away from lodgings and shops.
There was also a great interference with drainage and other underground pipelines. In spite of careful attempts to avoid these lines in the excavation of the earth, many lines were hit and damaged or destroyed. One of the reasons behind the delay of the Underground's scheduled opening was an accidental breakage into the sewerage line which ran parallel to the railway line. As the pipelines below the earth were being destroyed and the city above was being demolished, London's few open spaces dwindled away. If there were any places that were not already overcrowded with people, pollution, and buildings, they were soon filled up with
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Source: The London Undergroundhttp://www.loyno.edu
Despite this criticism and drawbacks, London
Tube Railway became a huge hit and allowed the city population to be more dispersed. A good network of railways enabled a huge mass of people to reside in better planned suburbs outside London and commute to their work places on daily basis. London was now a metropolis which could not do without well functioning transport system.
A vast network of tramways was laid by the
London County Council since 1901. Motorized buses also started playing on the London roads since 1904.
Private cars began to appear on London roads from 1890s onwards. These new developments, privileges, and facilities of the modern cities led to a variety of social changes. Old social distinctions of class and status were turned down and new social norms were set up. All these developments changed the domestic and public life forever.
GENDER, FAMILY, AND SOCIETY
Industrialization, urbanization, and modernization brought immense changes in the institution of family, its structure and functions underwent a massive transformation. Ideas about gender, family and marriage in the 18 th
century were based on classical thought and mythology. Men and women were considered to be different with respect to physical potential, emotional control and social responsibilities.
Expectations of male and female conduct were also governed by these thoughts. In the institution of marriage, man had all the authority and they were expected to control all family property. They were the decision makers as head of the family and were the primary wage earners or bread winners, while women were expected to look after the domestic front, household chores and children.
With the arrival of the industrialization and urbanization, the situation changed as women got employment in a few sectors where work was considered as the expansion of the family responsibilities – like domestic service as maid, tailoring and laundering, nursing etc. At times, they got jobs in the factories also.
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But, most of this work was limited to the women of low social classes only. Ladies of the upper and the middle class were expected to stay at home while taking care of children and doing the household chores. They employed domestic workers who on one hand made their lives easy and comfortable but on the other hand made them all the more isolated. This isolation made these women pick up the works like charity, teaching and authorship etc.
As a result of urbanization, by the end of the 19 th
century, working class women got new jobs available to them like that of the typist, clerk or a shop assistant etc. All this gave them financial independence and confidence. They were no more dependent on their male counterparts, though their salaries and wages were less than that of men. Women did not have any property or political rights which they started demanding through feminist movements since 1870’s.
The urban centers no doubt encouraged a new spirit of individualism among both men and women and gave liberty from following traditional values of collective bonding which was the essence of rural families. Emotional ties between the family members loosened and resulted in broken marriages amongst the working class. Many reformers felt that economic freedom of women had come at the cost of the very existence of the institutions of marriage and family. They wanted women to be pushed back to the home front in order to save the institution of family from breaking down. This is why public space later on started becoming male dominated.
Since the 18 th century, the family had been a unit of production as well as consumption and its members had stayed and worked together in a joint system. Migration of some of the family members to the cities for the purpose of seeking jobs was a big blow to the family structure and paved way for the formation of much smaller units called as the nuclear families. By the 20 th
century, the urban family had been totally transformed mainly because of the work done by women during the war years, which added to the family income and increased its purchasing power. Women became the bread earners in certain families during these years where the men folk had been involved in the wars.
As women worked out, they could not find much time to focus on the household chores, hence the families started depending upon the market and their income allowed them to do so. This is how the era of consumerism started, where goods, services, and even the ideas were available in the market. This is how city not only created changes in the family system but also created opportunities for mass work, mass production, and mass consumption.
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L
EISURE AND RECREATION
Meanwhile, need for relaxation and a break from the entire week’s hard work, enjoyment and recreation during the free time was felt. This led to the new forms of leisure, and entertainment, clubs, music, and theatre performances, etc. These new institutions not only relaxed the minds and the physical bodies of the London working class as well as the elites, but also resulted in the development, strengthening, and deepening of the popular culture. During the late 18h century, a large number of coffee houses came up in London, which was the center of public activity. They were also the hubs of literary, scientific and political debates as the city
London was a home to nation’s greatest authors, thinkers, scientists and intellectuals. Lectures, exhibitions, debates used to be held frequently in the literary saloons and taverns which emerged in large numbers in this time and became popular. Ability to read among the working class made reading also a popular pass time.
Novels became quite a rage among the people as some of the first novels were published at this time in
London. Circulating libraries became popular because books and novels were still expensive. Free public libraries were set up since 1847. Popularity of newspapers was even more dramatic as London had
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century.
‘The Times’ was first published in 1785,
‘The Observer’
in 1791,
‘The Manchester Guardian’
in 1821, and
‘The Daily Telegraph’
in 1855.
Galleries and museums were also established in the 19 th
century to create awareness about the British history and achievements in the past. Traditional games like
Chess, Gambling, Card games and sports like
Tennis, Cricket, and Football were very popular amongst men. Industrial workers were increasingly encouraged by the local authorities to take their families on the beach during summer holidays and spend time enjoying the benefits of sunshine and cool breeze. Dock workers often took their children for a boat trip in the river during the weekends.
Cinema became popular amongst the working class and the dock workers in the early 20 th
century as it provided complete entertainment to the individuals as well as the families. Films, cartoons like
‘Tom and
Jerry’ and news reels were played at the cinema halls and audiences watched the shows with deep interest.
‘Punch and Judy’ - The Puppet Show also attracted large crowds. Theatre was also extremely popular amongst the people. Plays and dramas based on the works of prominent writers were performed and received a lot acclaim. Music halls also became huge hits amongst the working classes. Pubs emerged as common places of drinking and public interaction and exchange of ideas. Many a times, pub owners used to organize day long trips or city tours in order to increase their clientele. For the rich and the wealthy, annual cultural festival known as the London season used to be organized. A variety of cultural events like the opera, the theatre and the classical music performances were for an elite group of 300-400 families. Wealthy young men, used to organize and embark on sea voyages lasting a year or two. Boys of well off families attended grammar schools and girls used to take lessons in music and embroidery etc. Sculpture and painting were also popular among the elites.
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POPULATION AND POLITICS
In the year 1707, ‘The Kingdom of Great Britain’ was formed by merging Scottish and English parliaments. This development made London even more important politically. People from all direction flocked into the megacity. Over-crowding poor housing conditions, lack of sanitation, harsh working conditions, disease and poverty in the east end created a lot of unrest amongst the city dwellers. American
Revolution followed by the French Revolution and later on the Napoleonic Wars resulted in the large scale migration of people from various parts of Europe to London. Many of these migrants settled in the west end.
Large city population was an asset as it provided an army of workers for manufacturing, trade and other economic activities, it consumed the goods produced and allowed the factories and industries to continue production for economic benefits but at the same time, this population was a great labiality for the local authorities to look after and take care of. In case of any failure in doing this, the enormous population could turn into a serious threat for the local authorities with immense potential to shake their political status badly in the form of violent riots, uprisings and rebellions. Huge mass of people could easily connect to the political causes and issues in the city and result in the outbreak of popular movements.
Throughout this period, city politics remained ignorant and insensitive towards the public problems and turned its back on the overcrowding masses. Later in the 19 th
century, people took to streets, demanding reforms in politics in local governance.
Long campaigns were organized by the urban radicals for the grant of franchise. Movements and massive demonstrations demanding improvement in the condition of the poor and the working class were organized, categorically in 1830’s and 1840’s, notably by the Chartists to control the situation and to pick up with the improvement in infrastructure. The Municipal Board of Works was established in 1855 and started with the construction of sewers in the city and improvement schemes for street and housing in London. It was followed by the formation of – London county council which picked up the work of establishing rail and road network in London. Journalists and social reformers conducted surveys specifically in the East-end gave out shocking reports. Issues like increasing level of crime, unemployment, and poverty, thus became matters of grave concern and created fear of socialist rebellion. Extreme winters in 1886 transformed these
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Severe cold and large scale unemployment forced the London poor to burst in a riot asking for relief from such harsh conditions and moreover from poverty. Another similar kind of a riot broke out in November
1887, which was brutally crushed by the police and the incident became infamous as the Bloody Sunday in the history of London.
Later in 1889, thousands of dock workers went on a 12 day strike and rallied through the city. The strike was peaceful and ended with a grant of recognition to the dock workers’ union. Strong public action had earlier also resulted in the passing of the factory laws for the benefit of the workers. Urbanization not only brought masses to the city but also made them politically aware and active. Large population could easily be motivated or provoked for a political cause. Hence, this huge urban population on one hand was an opportunity and on the other a threat for the city politicians.
Urbanization occurred at the cost of ecology and environment. Whether it was
London or any other city of the world, natural landscape was leveled and flattened in order to create space for houses, roads and railways, industries and other institutions. Large amount of human and industrial waste created in the city led to the pollution of atmosphere, land, river and water, Large scale use of coal in houses as well as in the industrial units created grave problems for the environment at that point of time in the 19 th
century for instance, factories in London used to emit black smoke in the city skies which was often accompanied by soot. City dwellers often grumbled about the black fog that frequently occurred in their living areas and resulted in smoke related respiratory problems, dirty clothes and increased irritability. Black smoke combined with the fog of the city turned into heavy smog which created serious health problems.
Example, ‘The Great Smog of 1952’ in Britain lasted for 5 days and killed over 4,000 people. In order to control easy and frequent formation of smog, Smoke Nuisance Abatement (Metropolis) Acts were passed in
1853 and 1856. Efforts were made to control pollution by implementation of the Public Health Act in
1891.Despite government efforts, pollution could not be controlled effectively in London till late 19 th century.
‘Clean Air Act’
was passed in 1956 to create clean smokeless zones. It was an attempt to shift
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL industries and power stations away from the city and also to increase the height of chimneys Implementation of this act was a tough task as factory owners and industrialists were in no mood to spend money on developing technology in order to improve their machines or to shift their industrial units so as to control pollution.
This case study will explore various aspects of growth and development of Delhi as a modern city.
Students will prepare a city profile on the current state of Delhi in the 21 st century on the basis of the explanation given in their manual.
Delhi, the capital city of India, the largest democracy of the world, has a long history as it served to be the capital to various kingdoms and empires from time to time. Though the human habitation in this part of the nation dates back to millennia but there are no strong evidences to prove it. As per the ancient Indian scripture of Mahabharata, Delhi is considered to be a 5000 years old city but most of that time period has been lost in history and has no sufficient literary or archaeological records.
There are evidences which convince us that eight cities have been located in this area in different time periods. But last three of them- the one built by Delhi Sultans, Shahjanabad built by the Mughal Emperor
Shahjahan and the one developed by Lutyen in the imperial era have been more imposing and impactful.
Present Delhi comprises of two parts- Walled city of Shahjanabad, currently referred to as the old Delhi;
New Delhi, the city developed by the British after shifting their capital from Calcutta in 1911. The two worlds of this city, the new and the old, form a great amalgamation of totally different people and co-exist with traditions, customs and modernity in an incredible and outstanding manner.
Hindustan Times
New Delhi, September 01, 2011
Article by Sidhartha Roy
In the 1930s and for most of 1940s, Delhi was a study in contrast. While the sparking New Delhi with its grand buildings and wide vistas was mostly desolate, the old city was bursting at its seams. Earlier plans to build the new capital envisaged a harmony between it and the existing city. The ideas, however, were junked with the British determinedly cutting off the mingling of the two except for some buffer areas like Paharganj and Daryaganj. What was the city before 1911 had become 'walled city' by 1931.
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After becoming the capital, Delhi kept on growing even as New Delhi started taking shape. People displaced from erstwhile villages like Madhoganj, Jaisingh Pura and Raja ka Bazaar to build Connaught
Place and nearby areas, were relocated in Karol Bagh, then a rocky area populated by trees and wild, thorny bushes.
The residents of the badly congested shahar (city) too were reluctant to move to places like the
Western Expansion Area, built to decongest the old city. There were plans to break the wall between
Ajmeri Gate and Delhi Gate to allow natural expansion of the city but it was resisted by the authorities, who felt this would expose the 'slums' of the area to New Delhi.
The issue of Delhi's congestion was raised repeatedly in the Legislative Assembly by freedom fighter
Asaf Ali. As a result, a Delhi Improvement Trust was formed in 1937, under the chairmanship of AP
Hume. "The trust developed plans like Jhandewalan scheme, Roshanara city extension, northern extension etc.," said AK Jain, author of 'Lutyens' Delhi'. "Roop Nagar and Kamala Nagar in north and
Shahdara in trans-Yamuna area were developed. Daryaganj, which housed army barracks, was also developed," he said.
The contours of New Delhi also changed with the advent of the Second World War in 1939. New industries came up to cater to the needs of war and with it came migrant labourers. Hutments came up near the Secretariat for war-time offices.
A few years later, housing for government employees also came up in the Lodhi Colony area.
Bungalows for senior officials were built in the nearby Lodhi Estate area.
Source: http://www.hindustantimes.com
Delhi Durbar, 12 December 1911, where announcement of Shifting of capital was done by King George V
In the year 1803, the British, under the East India Company, defeated the Marathas and captured Delhi.
They installed a British administrator for the purpose of governance and protection. The Mughal Emperor
Bahadurshah Zafar was put under British protection and his authority now remained limited within the Red
Fort area. He was now a pensioner of the British. Delhi was no more the capital of India but was indeed an important commercial and trade centre After the decline of the Mughals in 1857, the control of the political power in India passed on to the British Crown with Queens Proclamation of 1858. Calcutta served as the capital for the British territories in India and it was after more than fifty years from then that Delhi became the capital once again in the year 1911.
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The British established the Delhi Municipality in the year 1863 by a notification of the Government of
Punjab under the Municipality Act in order to look after public health and conveniences. By 1881, Delhi became a first class municipality and from the beginning of the 20 th
century had jurisdiction over the old
Shahjahanabad and suburbs like the Sadar Bazar, Paharganj, KarolBagh etc. The British population and other Europeans lived in the Civil Lines area which was later in 1913 put under the administrative control of a Notified Area Committee.
MAKING OF A NEW IMPERIAL CAPITAL
Construction of the new capital at Delhi,
(source: New Delhi – Making of a capital, published by Roil books)
The British Government announced the transfer of capital of their Indian empire from Calcutta to Delhi in
1911 at Delhi Durbar presided over by the King George V and queen Marry as the Emperor and the Empress of India. The contract of constructing the new city was given to architect Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker.
The city assumed its modern structure when the Imperial Capital of British India was shifted from Calcutta in 1912.Construction started and continued till 1929 under the Delhi Town Planning Committee which comprised of the chief architect Edwin L. Lutyens, G.S.Swinton, Chairman of London County Council and
John A Brodie, city engineer of Liverpool. New Delhi was to be developed as a garden city as it was a trend in the British Town Planning at that point of time. It was to be made symbolic of the British imperial power in India; hence vast stretches of lands were left undeveloped in the middle of the two cities in order to separate the new city from the old one, which by now came to represent congestion, chaos and disease and was the true example of political and administrative neglect. New Delhi, on the other hand was projected as a highly controlled neat and clean urban area, well planned with large government buildings, palatial bungalows, wide roads, open spaces and parks.
The British inaugurated this capital in 1931 and could rule from here till August 1947, when India became independent from the imperial subjugation. The country had to undergo painful partition and Delhi as a city
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL had to accommodate migrants from West Punjab and East Bengal which were a part of Pakistan. Delhi’s past and present have a lot of stories to tell to the current generations. This case study will help us to explore them.
Read the given source to understand their real plight and hardships which these people faced.
Several of those who arrived during the Partition left their mark on Delhi. They took up jobs otherwise considered menial. While Delhi was happy to live in the past, these immigrants didn’t fear the future. They grew wealthy and powerful.
For lakhs of refugees, Delhi was the first choice of destination. “Where else could we go?
Amritsar was sulking on the border. Ludhiana was not developed. Ambala had no water supply. So, Delhi was the obvious choice as it was both the capital and the commercial centre,” historian VN Dutta wrote in Delhi through Ages, quoting affluent Punjabi businessmen.
Many made the most of adversity with sheer enterprise. Dharam Pal Gulati had left behind a flourishing spice business in Sialkot. With virtually no capital to re-establish his business in
Delhi, he bought a horse cart from Chandni Chowk. “I ferried passengers for two annas
(1/16th of a rupee) per trip,” he told HT in an earlier interview. Having made some money,
Gulati bought a kiosk in Karol Bagh in 1948. With his trademark Degi Mirch (pot chilli) he launched Mahashiya Di Hatti in Delhi. Starting with Rs 9,700 in 1948, MDH is a Rupees 300 crore-plus company today. It is a market leader, selling 45 varieties of spices and exporting them to more than 50 countries.
Several refugees have similar stories. The late HP Nanda and his brother, founders of the
Escorts Group, had to give up their flourishing business in Lahore. Their Escorts (Agents)
Limited boasted of a capital of R1 million, a significant amount in those days. In 1947, they
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL arrived penniless in Delhi. But they resurrected the business in no time and soon became independent India’s leading trading houses, selling tractors, farm implements and later motorcycles.
Source: http://www.hindustantimes.com
Through the case study of this city, the students will research upon the making of New Delhi as the new capital of colonial India. They will also look into the development of Delhi as the capital of independent
India since 1947. Moreover, the learners will also study the role and contribution of the inhabitants of Old
Delhi in the making and sustenance of the new division of this city. The students will ponder upon the similarities and differences in both the areas regarding demographic composition, occupations, work, life and leisure activities, conducted by the inhabitants of this city while contributing towards its growth and development.
Glossary:
1.
URBANIZATION - Urbanization is a process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas forming cities. Cities keep on growing with changing demographics and other factors.
2.
METROPOLIS - A metropolis is a very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and communications. The term itself is derived from Greek, in which it literally means "mother city,"
3.
MARGINAL GROUPS – People living on the edge or existing outside the mainstream of society due to certain reasons, such as poverty.
4.
ASPHYXIATION - To undergo asphyxia; suffocate. Asphyxia is a condition in which an extreme decrease in the concentration of oxygen in the body accompanied by an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide leads to suffocation and loss of consciousness or death.
5.
INDIVIDUALISM - Belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of selfreliance and personal independence. A doctrine holding that the interests of the individual should take precedence over the interests of the state or social group.
6.
CONSUMERISM - Practice of an increasing consumption of goods from the market and also a modern movement for the protection of the consumer against useless, inferior, or dangerous products, misleading advertising, unfair pricing, etc.
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WORKSHEET - 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
Tick the correct option:
1.
Which of the following statements is NOT correct with regard to urbanization? a) It helps in creating large scale employment b) It is a result of industrial revolution c) It creates environmental balance
{
{
{
}
}
} d) It develops scientific attitude among people { }
2.
Henry Mayhew surveyed upon the condition of which of the following in London? a) Shopkeepers and traders b) Labourers and the poor
{
{
}
} c) Soldiers and officers d) Engineers and doctors { }
3.
Which one of the following was not a major industry in 18 th
century London? a) Printing and stationary b) Clothing and footwear
{
{
{
}
}
} c) Surgical implements d) Computer software
4.
Delhi does not have a Presidency college because – a) It was not the capital initially b) It was not a Presidency city
{
{
{
}
}
}
{ } c) It did not have the resources d) It already had many colleges
{
{
5.
Novel Hard Times was written by which of the following writers?
}
} a) Andrew Mearn b) Charles Dickens
{
{
}
} c) Henry Mayhew d) Charles Booth
{
{
}
}
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WORKSHEET- 2
1.
Explain the major reason that led to the emergence of settled life among humans
.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2.
Compare life of the rural people with that of the city dwellers. Bring out at least three similarities and three differences.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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WORKSHEET- 3
1.
Discuss the results of the freedom from the task of arranging food supplies by the ancient humans.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
2.
Explain the important features of the ancient cities. How did these cities prove to be the living examples of human development?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3.
Give three evidences to prove that urbanization resulted in changing and reshaping the landscape.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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WORKSHEET- 4
Mention the ways in which metropolises are different from small cities and towns?
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WORKSHEET- 5
1.
Enlist and explain the factors that led to the rise of modern trends in the cities.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2.
How were the cities of the 17 th
/18 th
century different from the ones existing in the 21 st
century? Give examples in support of your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3.
“Modern cities present contrasting images and experiences.” Give three arguments to prove the statement.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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WORKSHEET- 6
1.
Explain the following stages of urbanization:

When the humans and their activities were dependent on nature and in accordance with it.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________

When the impact of nature was reduced and the dominance of mankind over nature increased.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________

When the limits, confines and restrictions of nature were overthrown by the new age man
.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
2.
MAP WORK

Name and locate three cities each from the ancient and medieval times on the outline map of the world.

Locate any five metropolitan cities in different continents on the political map of the world.

Locate three cities each, in the highly polluted and least polluted category, on a political map of the world.

Name and locate any two countries each falling in highly urbanized and least urbanized category.

Name and locate five most populous cities on the political map of the world.
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Evaluate/examine/justify the following statements with the help of appropriate arguments:
1.
Industrialization actually did not create cities; it just changed their form in the contemporary period, modernized them and increased the pace of urbanization.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2.
Migration is the main factor behind urbanization and development of cities
.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________
3.
Not only the rich, but working class and the poor also contribute towards the development and growth of a city.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________
4.
Lack of equal opportunities and equitable distribution of wealth often leads to emergence and growth of crime in the urban areas.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_______________
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WORKSHEET- 8
• POSITIVE • POSITIVE • POSITIVE
• NEGATIVE • NEGATIVE • NEGATIVE
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WORKSHEET- 9
History is studied with the help of various sources, like literary and archaeological evidences. In the same manner illustrations, drawings and paintings are the artistic sources for a period when they were made and depict the society of that time.
Given are the illustrations by a famous British artist and a painter Gustav Dore. He depicted London of his times through his paintings and illustrations. These works were quite shocking as they showed the real picture of one of the richest and most prosperous cities of the world with thousands of poor as its inhabitants. Observe these illustrations and explain the condition of the poor in your own words.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
WORKSHEET- 10
READ THROUGH THE ARTICLE
THE BITTER CRY OF OUTCAST LONDON: BY ANDREW MEARNS
Written in 1883 it was an inquiry into the condition of the abject poor and was even more shocking than anything that appeared in one of Dickens's novels. In a particularly gruesome passage Mearns described his visit to one of the notorious slums of East London.
HUMAN ROOKERIES
“Few who will read these pages have any conception of what these pestilential human rookeries are, where tens of thousands are crowded together amidst horrors which call to mind what we have heard of the middle passage of the slave ship.
To get into them you have to penetrate courts reeking with poisonous and malodorous gases arising from accumulations of sewage and refuse scattered in all directions and often flowing beneath your feet; courts, many of them which the sun never penetrates, which are never visited by a breath of fresh air, and which rarely know the virtues of a drop of cleansing water. You have to ascend rotten staircases, which threaten to give way beneath every step….You have to grope your way along dark and filthy passages swarming with vermin.”
Read the passage and answer the following questions:
1.
What does the writer mean by the term HUMAN ROOKERIES?
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____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2.
Explain the actual problem which is being talked about in this article.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3.
What do you infer from the following statement- many of them which the sun never penetrates, which are never visited by a breath of fresh air, and which rarely know the virtues of a drop of cleansing water . . . . .
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Go back into history and imagine yourself as a journalist of the18 th /19 th century in London and write a report on any one of the given topics/events/issues.

Bloody Sunday of November in London

Condition of river Thames in the 18 th – 19 th century

Condition of children in the work house

Leisure activities of the Londoners in the 19 th
century
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
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_______________________
WORKSHEET- 12
1.
Explain the causes behind the expansion of London’s population between 17 th
and 19 th
centuries.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
2.
Evaluate the statement, “London in the 17 th century was not yet industrialized but was amazingly modern.”
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
3.
Throw some light on the life of factory workers in London. What steps were taken by the government to improve their condition?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
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4.
Discuss the problem of child labor in the 18 th
century London.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
5.
Write the measures that were taken to decongest London.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
6.
On what grounds did the people of London criticize the underground railways?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
WORKSHEET- 13
1.
Identify the three historical processes that have shaped modern cities.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
2.
Cite the meaning of ASPHYXIATION and mention one of its major causes in 19 th
century London.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
3.
Evaluate the measures taken by the government of London to contain criminalization among children and youth.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
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4.
Identify the people who are considered as marginal groups. Analyze their living conditions in 19 th
century
London. Also explain the steps taken by the government to improve their condition.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
5.
“Industrialization and urbanization have transformed the social life of people to a great extent.” Discuss these changes with reference to London /Delhi / country of your origin/ residence.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________
WORKSHEET- 14
1.
Many Indians had to relocate themselves from various parts of the country during 1911-1930. Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
2.
Compare the walled city of Shahjahanabad with New Delhi. Enlist the similarities and differences between these two parts of Delhi in form of a compare and contrast matrix.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3.
Delhi was chosen to be the new capital of British India instead of Calcutta and Shimla. Discuss the advantages of Delhi over these two cities in detail.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________
4.
Explain the process of development of New Delhi as a modern city. Support your answer with relevant evidences and examples.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8:58PM BST 04 Aug 2011
Indian villagers whose ancestors’ land was seized by colonial officials to build a new colonial capital for the British Raj are suing for compensation almost 100 years after King George V announced the creation of New Delhi.
The case has been brought by the descendants of 300 villagers who lived on the grounds of what is now India's Rashtrapati Bhavan. Lawyers for the families said they may also make
Britain a party to their case, dragging the former colonial master into
’s current running battle over land reform.They were evicted under the controversial 1894 Land Acquisition Act which is still used by the Indian government today to force villagers to make way for infrastructure and business projects such as power stations and steel plants.
The case has been brought by the descendants of 300 villagers who lived on the grounds of
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL what is now India’s Rashtrapati Bhavan – or Presidential House – to force the Indian government to track down money set aside for compensation but never paid. Between 1911 and 1916, just less than 4,000 acres were cleared and 300 families were evicted from Raisina and Malcha villages to create the Viceroy’s House, the grand sandstone palace which towers over the Indian parliament and ministry buildings. Some compensation money was lodged with the Bank of Bengal, which eventually became part of the State Bank of India, but lawyers say little of the money was ever paid out. At the time the villagers disputed the compensation rates offered by the British – they demanded 2,400 Rupees per acre for fertile land and Rs1,
920 for infertile land, but were offered only Rs85 and Rs15 per acre.
Just one in ten of those evicted accepted the offer. Land earmarked on the outskirts of New
Delhi is currently valued at $1m per acre for official compensation purposes, although land in central Delhi is many times more valuable. Now their descendants, armed with India’s Right to Information legislation, have revived the dispute and demanded that the Indian government recover missing compensation funds from the accounts they were paid into and either fully compensate those who never received any payment or return the land to them.
“The petitioners have stated that their forefathers were not paid any compensation by the
British government for their land and they were uprooted from their land and homes without any money. They have proved they are the legal heirs and revenue records have been submitted to prove the land was acquired by the government. Besides this, we have presented records which prove that the families have not received any money,” their lawyer Sanjay Rathi told The Daily Telegraph. “We will demand restoration of the deposited money to the families and revised compensation or return of the land to the families because the land was taken during an oppressive regime when the land owners were illiterate and had no means to fight back. We will demand justice,” he added. The petitioners are now debating whether to drag Britain into the case as the colonial authority which ordered the land clearance: “If need arises we can make British government a party in the case since the land acquisition was taken place under their regime,” Mr. Rathi said.
Study the above stated case of legal battle between the farmers/land owners and the former
Imperial Government of India under the British. The colonial government had bought a huge mass of land from these people to construct a new capital of the British territories in India, i.e.
New Delhi. It is claimed that the British did not pay justified compensation to the land owners and bought it at a very low price.
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Do women in your city of choice/origin/residence enjoy same status as that of men? Write your findings and views under the following heads.
 Public Participation
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
 Job or Profession
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
 Decision Making
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Representation in the government
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Financial position
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Safety and Security
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
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Research upon the city of your choice / origin/ residence and try to get information about the following issues. Suggest some effective ways to tackle these problems.
 Developmental activities and Deforestation
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
 Condition of Traffic, road rage and accidents
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Housing issues
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Attitude of the youth towards education, value system and society
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
 Level of Crime
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
 Level of Pollution
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________
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ACROSS
6. First capital of British in India.
9. Considerably a poorer area of London.
10. Main cause behind the emergence of modern cities.
11. Author of the Novel 'Oliver Twist'.
DOWN
1. New type of Estates and Villas with open spaces and lot of greenery around.
2. Chief Architect Designer of New Delhi.
3. A big City supporting a very large population.
4. Concept of considering an Individual as more important than the society or the state.
5. The part of Delhi established by a Mughal
King.
6. The person who used the concept of Poverty
Line for the first time.
7. Cartoons published in the newspapers highlighting the bad condition of the River
Thames.
8. Development of a city.
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REFERENCE & LINKS
1.
http://www.hiddencities.org/downloads/ch1_WHO_UN-HABITAT_Hidden_Cities.pdf
2.
http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Material-london.jsp
3.
http://www.thebirdtree.co.uk/showmedia.php?mediaID=138
4.
http://www.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1989-0/ladart.htm
5.
http://theloveforhistory.com/other/18th-century-london-its-daily-life-and-hazards/
6.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Labour_and_the_London_Poor
7.
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConGallery.160/Punch-cartoons.html
8.
http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.78/chapterId/1874/Socialconditions-in-the-19thcentury-port.html
9.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/8681785/New-Delhi-villagers-seekcompensation-100-years-after-being-evicted-by-Raj.html
10.
http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/A-tale-of-two-cities/Article1-
740282.aspx
11.
http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Movers-and-Shakers/Article1-
758870.aspx
SOURCES FOR THE IMPORTANT TERMS
1.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/individualism
2.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/consumerism
1.
History Of Cities And City Planning - By Cliff Ellis http://www.art.net/~hopkins/Don/simcity/manual/history.html
2.
The Natural History of Urbanization - Lewis Mumford http://habitat.aq.upm.es/boletin/n21/almum.en.htm
3.
Urbanization During the Industrial Revolution http://www.buzzle.com/articles/urbanization-during-the-industrial-revolution.html
4.
The Dawn of an Urban World http://www.hiddencities.org/downloads/ch1_WHO_UN-HABITAT_Hidden_Cities.pdf
5.
A population History of London: Old Bailey Proceedings from 1674 to 1913
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STUDENTS’ MANUAL http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/London-life18th.jsp
6.
Aspects of Industrial Revolution in Britain http://www1.umassd.edu/ir/
7.
Crime and Industrialization in England http://www.bunker8.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/history/36805.htm
8.
England in 19 th century: Impaction of Urbanization http://www.rmjs.co.uk/bham/12eh01.pdf
9.
London labour and the London poor: By Henry Mayhew http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/8257483/London-Labour-and-the-London-
Poor-by-Henry-Mayhew-ed-by-Robert-Douglas-Fairhurst-review.html
10.
Material London http://books.google.com/books?id=pvEF8SQPEb8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Orlin&ie=ISO-8859-
1&source=gbs_gdata#v=onepage&q&f=false
11.
The Underground Railway in Victorian London http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/london/Archive/On-line-pubs/2001/paper5.html
12.
Social conditions in the 19th Century Port: London http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.78/Social-conditions-in-the-
19thcentury-port.html
SOURCES TO IMAGES:
1.
17 th CenturymapofLondon httpupload.wikimedia.orgwikipediacommons55217th_century_map_of_London_(W.Hollar)
2.
Industrial Revolution – http.www.mexsoc.manchester.ac.uksymposiumimagesMancotton.jpg
3.
Ind Rev - httpwww.mtholyoke.educoursesrschwartind_revimagesIR36GR21x1.jpg
4.
Mills–httpwww.portcities.org.uklondonservershowconMediaFile.2134
5.
Building-the-Royal-Victoria-Docks.html
6.
London Mills - httpwww.j31.co.ukdincol13_small.jpg
7.
Mill Children in London httpupload.wikimedia.orgwikipediacommons777Mill_Children_in_Macon.jpg
8.
Work house - httpwww.sxolsout.org.ukttvv_filesimage012.jpg
THIS IS ONLY A DRAFT DOCUMENT FINAL VERSION WILL BE COMING SOON.
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