Human Resource Development:
Managing Learning and Knowledge Capital
Chapter 2
Adult Learning
Copyright © 2010 Tilde University Press
Learning
• A relatively permanent change in behaviour or
behaviour potential resulting from experiences
• A complex process that occurs throughout life
that allows people to adjust to the many changes
that occur
• One becomes more capable of more
sophisticated, more flexible and more creative
action
• Is what makes humans unique
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Adults as learners
• Adults may use learning processes that are
different from of children
• Assumptions of pedagogical and andragogical
models of learning
• Adult learning principles
– Relevant to the real life situations and problems
– Incorporate the rich experiences of the learners
– Involve the learner
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Basic types of learning
• Classical conditioning
– Unconditional stimulus/conditioned stimulus
leading to the response
• Behaviour modification
– Every behaviour is supported by a reward
• Modelling
– Imitate the behaviour of an important other
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Two basic types of knowledge
• Tacit knowledge
– In the mind of the individual
– Unarticulated and tied to the senses
– Important for solving problems or challenges
• Explicit knowledge
– Can be declared – e.g. drawings, writings
– Can be shared at low cost between individuals
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Processes of generating knowledge
• Combination
– Explicit to explicit – e.g. this lecture
• Externalisation
– Tacit to explicit
– Simplistic form of the tacit
• Internalisation
– Explicit to tacit
– Reflection
• Socialisation
– Tacit to tacit
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Transformational learning
• Instrumental learning
– Learning to control and manipulate the
environment
• Communicative learning
– Understanding each other’s inner world
• Emancipatory learning
– Becoming free of hegemonic assumptions
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Instrumental learning
• Learning to control and manipulate the environment
• Same as communicative learning
• Assumes a set of universal information that can be
transmitted
• For example, learning how to use a machine safely
• Based on a number of principles of learning
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Principles of learning
• Starting with the known
– Identify the learner’s current level of knowledge
• Readiness to learn
– Will be more effective when ready to learn
• Part learning
– Separate into small pieces – e.g. 7 + or - 2
• Spaced learning
– Put spaces between the pieces e.g. time
• Active learning
– Learning by doing – also can be a space
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Activity
• Select a blank piece of paper
• Turn all your notes upside down so you cannot
see them
• On the blank piece of paper, list the first five
principles of learning, in order
• People will be nominated to identify each
principal
• Others will be asked to describe the principal
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Principles of learning (continued)
• Over learning
– Repetition in a subtle, yet effective way
• Multiple sense learning
– 80% of information is taken in through sight
• Feedback
– Informational and motivational
• Meaningful material
– Acceptable and useful to the learner
• Transfer of learning
– Similar to the working situation
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Activity
• Select a blank piece of paper
• Turn all your notes upside down so you cannot
see them
• On the blank piece of paper, list the last 5
principles of learning, in order
• People will be nominated to identify each
principal
• Others will be asked to describe the principal
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Communicative learning
• Dynamics of understanding others
• Validity of another’s personal beliefs
• Not a debate. A debate uses Model I theoryin-use:
–
–
–
–
Remain in unilateral control
Minimise losing and maximise winning
Suppress negative feelings
Give the appearance of being rational
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Communicative learning (continued)
• Discourse
– Search for common understanding
– Justification of a belief
• Rational discourse
– Allows each party to understand the position of
the other
• Reflective discourse
– Occurs after rational discourse
– Critical assessment of views
– May lead to change of personal beliefs
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Communicative learning (continued)
• Is often avoided when designing a learning
program
– Needs more time
– Needs highly skilled facilitator
• Is important because
– Tends to have a more profound and long-term impact
– Develops critical thinking and critical reflection
• Will occur when using learning strategies such
as the discussion, case study and role play
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Emancipatory learning
• Transform basic frames of references
• Those deep-seated underlying value systems
that shape our everyday behaviours and
attitudes.
• Consist of:
– Paradigmatic assumptions
– Prescriptive assumptions
– Causal assumptions
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Role of frames of reference
• Automatically selects a behaviour/attitude – thus
saving time and energy
• Filter information, accepting that which supports
& rejecting that which does not
• Very well defended
• Any change is usually accompanied by a highly
emotional reaction
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Changing frames of reference
• Incremental approach
– Gradually change an associated cluster of causal
and then prescriptive assumptions
– Usually through communicative learning and
modelling
• Epochal approach
– Disorienting dilemma causing cognitive
dissonance
– Critical reflection – content/process/premise
reflection
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Importance of emancipatory learning
• Changes a hegemonic assumption
– Seem to make life easier but work against our
long term best interests
• Critical reflection is the key
• Such change is critical to organisations so that
the organisation can survive the dynamic
environments
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Critical thinking
• The logic we use to change our knowledge
• The “Q” part of L = P + Q
• Components
– Problem solving
• Scientific problem solving
• System beta
–
–
–
–
Creativity
Evaluation
Dialectic thinking
Logical reflection
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Unlearning
• Natural forgetting is now not quick enough
• Individual unlearning
– The overwriting model
– The parenthetic model
• The longer in the job, the more difficult
• Managing unlearning
– Feelings and expectations
– Individual inertia
– History of organisational change
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Encouraging unlearning
•
•
•
•
Explaining the need for change
Organisational support and training
Continuing support after implemenation
Positive experience and informal support
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Holistic adult learning
• See Figure 2.1
• The overlap of tacit knowledge and paradigmatic
assumptions
• The role of emotions
• The linked role of critical thinking and critical
reflection
• The filtering down of all of the above into a
simplistic form called “explicit knowledge”
• We see explicit knowledge as a behaviour
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The practical application
• Adult learning is much more than instrumental
learning
• Just look at all the concepts discussed in this
chapter !
• Adult learning is even more complex, consider:
– The time delay in learning (see Figure 2.2)
– The effect of stress on learning (see Figure 2.3)
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