NAME
COURSE
SUBJECT
: K.SATHEESH KUMAR
: I BA TOURISM AND TRAVEL MANAGEMENT
: INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
UNIT-1
PART-A
1) First Travel agencies was started …………….. in England
2) …………….. is a person who has full knowledge about tourist product
3) Travel agencies are working as on …………… Basis
PART-B
1) Define Geography?
Since the beginning of humankind, the study of geography has captured the imagination of the
people. In ancient times, geography books extolled tales of distant lands and dreamed of
treasures. The ancient Greeks created the word "geography" from the roots "ge" for earth and
"grapho" for "to write." These people experienced many adventures and needed a way to
explain and communicate the differences between various lands. Today, researchers in the
field of geography still focus on people and cultures (cultural geography), and the planet earth
(physical geography).
The features of the earth are the domain of physical geographers and their work includes
research about climates, the formation of landforms, and plant and animal distribution.
Working in closely related areas, the research of physical geographers and geologists often
overlaps.
Religion, languages, and cities are a few of the specialties of cultural (also known as human)
geographers. Their research into the intricacies of human existence is fundamental to our
understanding of cultures. Cultural geographers want to know why various groups practice
certain rituals, speak in different dialects, or organize their cities in a particular way.
Geographers plan new communities, decide where new highways should be placed, and
establish evacuation plans. Computerized mapping and data analysis is known as Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), a new frontier in geography. Spatial data is gathered on a variety
of subjects and input onto a computer. GIS users can create an infinite number of maps by
requesting portions of the data to plot.
There's always something new to research in geography: new nation-states are created, natural
disasters strike populated areas, the world's climate changes, and the Internet brings millions of
people closer together. Knowing where countries and oceans are on a map is important but
geography is much more than the answers to trivia questions. Having the ability to
geographically analyze allows us to understand the world in which we live.
2) Define Physiography.
Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the two major subfields
of geography.[1] Physical geography is that branch of natural science which deals with the study of
processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, biosphere andgeosphere, as
opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography.
Within the body of physical geography, the Earth is often split either into several spheres or
environments, the main spheres being the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere,
geosphere,hydrosphere, lithosphere and pedosphere. Research in physical geography is often
interdisciplinary and uses the systems approach.
From the birth of geography as a science during the Greek classical period and until the late
nineteenth century with the birth of anthropogeography or Human Geography, Geography was
almost exclusively a natural science: the study of location and descriptive gazetteer of all places of
the known world. Several works among the best known during this long period could be cited as
an example, from Strabo (Geography), Eratosthenes (Geography) or DionisioPeriegetes
(PeriegesisOiceumene) in the Ancient Age to the Alexander von Humboldt (Cosmos) in the
century XIX, in which geography is regarded as a physical and natural science, of course, through
the work Summa de Geografía of Martín Fernández de Enciso from the early sixteenth century,
which is indicated for the first time the New World.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a controversy exported from Geology, between
supporters of James Hutton (uniformitarianism Thesis) and Georges Cuvier (catastrophism)
strongly influenced the field of geography, because geography at this time was a natural science
since Human Geography or Antropogeography had just developed as a discipline in the late
nineteenth century.
Two historical events during the nineteenth century had a great effect in the further development
of physical geography. The first was the European colonial expansion
in Asia, Africa, Australiaand even America in search of raw materials required by industries
during the Industrial Revolution. This fostered the creation of geography departments in the
universities of the colonial powers and the birth and development of national geographical
societies, thus giving rise to the process identified by HoracioCapel as the institutionalization of
geography.
One of the most prolific empires in this regard was the Russian. A mid-eighteenth century many
geographers are sent by the Russian altamirazgo different opportunities to perform geographical
surveys in the area of Arctic Siberia. Among these is who is considered the patriarch of Russian
geography: Mikhail Lomonosov who in the mid-1750s began working in the Department of
Geography, Academy of Sciences to conduct research in Siberia, their contributions are notable in
this regard, shows the soil organic origin, develops a comprehensive law on the movement of the
ice that still governs the basics, thereby founding a new branch of Geography: Glaciology. In 1755
his initiative was founded Moscow University where he promotes the study of geography and the
training of geographers. In 1758 he was appointed director of the Department of Geography,
Academy of Sciences, a post from which would develop a working methodology for geographical
survey guided by the most important long expeditions and geographical studies in Russia. Thus
followed the line of Lomonosov and the contributions of the Russian school became more frequent
through his disciples, and in the nineteenth century we have great geographers
as VasilyDokuchaev who performed works of great importance as a "principle of comprehensive
analysis of the territory" and "Russian Chernozem" latter being the most important where
introduces the geographical concept of soil, as distinct from a simple geological strata, and thus
founding a new geographic area of study: the Pedology. Climatology also receive a strong boost
from the Russian school by WladimirKöppen whose main contribution, climate classification, is
still valid today. However, this great geographer also contributed to the Paleogeography through
his work "The climates of the geological past" which is considered the father ofPaleoclimatology.
Russian geographers who made great contributions to the discipline in this period were: NM
Sibirtsev, PyotrSemyonov, K. D. Glinka, Neustrayev, among others.
The second important process is the theory of evolution by Darwin in mid-century (which
decisively influenced the work of Ratzel, who had academic training as a zoologist and was a
follower of Darwin's ideas) which meant an important impetus in the development of
Biogeography.
3) Explain India and the sub continent.
The terms "Indian subcontinent" and "South Asia" are used interchangeably Due to political
sensitivities, some prefer to use the terms "South Asian Subcontinent" the "IndoPak Subcontinent",[the Subcontinent", or simply "South Asia"[9] over the term "Indian
subcontinent". According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Indian Subcontinent has
come to be known as South Asia "in more recent and neutral parlance."[9] Indologist Ronald B.
Inden argues that the usage of the term "South Asia" is getting more widespread since it clearly
distinguishes the region from East Asia; some academics hold that the term "South Asia" is in
more common use in Europe and North America, rather than the terms "Subcontinent" or the
"Indian Subcontinent"
The definition of the geographical extent of Indian subcontinent varies. Historically forming
the whole territory of Greater India, now it generally comprises the countries
of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh;] prior to 1947, the three nations were historically combined
and constitutedBritish India. It almost always also includes Nepal, Bhutan, and the island
country of Sri Lanka[14] and may also include Afghanistan and the island country
of Maldives. The region may also include the disputed territory of Aksai Chin, which was part
of the British Indian princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, but is now administered as part of
the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang. A booklet published by the United States
Department of State in 1959 includes Afghanistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), India, Nepal, and
Pakistan (including East Pakistan, now Bangladesh) as part of the "Subcontinent of South
Asia". When the term Indian subcontinent is used to mean South Asia, the islands countries of
Sri Lanka and the Maldives may sometimes not be included, while Tibet and Nepal may be
included[19] or excluded] intermittently, depending on the context.
4) Explain Indian Boundaries.
India stretches 3,214 km from N to S & 2933 km from E to W.
Area:- 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4 % of total world area and 16 % of the population
Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and Andaman and
Nicobar, the coastline measures about 7516. km
In India, total land mass is
Plains : - 43.3 %
Plateaus :- 27.7 %
Hills :- 18.6 %
Mountains:- 10.7 %
In the south, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar& the Palk Strait separate India from Sri
Lanka
Total land neighbours of India are 7 . These are
Pakistan
Afghanistan
China
Nepal
Nepal
Bhutan
Bangladesh and
Myanmar
India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bangal& Lakshadweep,
Minocy&Amindive Islands in the Arabian Sea.
5) Explain the Coastal plain and islands.
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the
Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east.
The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains and their deltas occupy
most of the area.[citation needed] The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30
°C (86 °F), and is coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast
monsoon and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the
Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves
northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards
and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this
region averages between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 120 in). The width of the plains varies
between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi).[29] The plains are divided into six regions—the
Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas,
the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.[citation needed]
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats
and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from
Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous
rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers
are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea
are the Tapi, Narmada,Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar
Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain pickles can be
divided into two parts, theKonkan and the Malabar Coast.
The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island
formations and are classified as union territories. The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 300 km
(120 to 190 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea with an area of 32 km2 (12 sq mi).
They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 36
islands and islets.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and
94° east longitude.[30] They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of Bengal near
the Burmese coast. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km
(120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Burma.[30] The territory consists of two island groups,
the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands consists of 204 small
islands across a total length of 352 km (219 mi). India's only active volcano, Barren Island is
situated here. It last erupted in May 2005. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is
a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the
Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the
Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m
(2,106 ft).
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese enclave; Majuli, a river
island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in
Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city
of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine
National Park.
UNIT-II
PART-A
1) Explain Climatology.
Climatology (from Greek κλίμα, klima, "place, zone"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of climate,
scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time,[1] and is a branch of
the atmospheric sciences. Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter termweather
forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño – Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the Northern Annualar
Mode (NAM), the Arctic oscillation (AO), the Northern Pacific (NP) Index, the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation (PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). Climate models are used for a
variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of
future climate.
The earliest person to hypothesize climate change may have been the medieval Chinese
scientist ShenKuo (1031–1095). ShenKuo theorized that climates naturally shifted over an
enormous span of time, after observing petrified bamboos found underground near Yanzhou
(modern day Yan'an, Shaanxi province), a dry-climate area unsuitable for the growth of bamboo.
Early climate researchers include Edmund Halley, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686
after a voyage to the southern hemisphere. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) first mapped the course
of the Gulf Stream for use in sending mail from the United States to Europe. Francis Galton (18221911) invented the term anticyclone.[2] Helmut Landsberg (1906-1985) fostered the use
of statistical analysis in climatology, which led to its evolution into a physical science.
2) Explain Climate of India - the Cold weather season.
Analyzed according to the Köppen system, the climate of India resolves into six major climatic
subtypes; their influences give rise to desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north,
humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest, and Indian Ocean island territories
that flank the Indian subcontinent. Regions have starkly different—yet tightly clustered—
microclimates. The nation is largely subject to four seasons: winter (January and February),
summer (March to May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June to September), and a post-monsoon
period (October to December).
India's geography and geology are climatically pivotal: the Thar Desert in the northwest and
the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect aculturally and economically break-all
monsoonal regime. As Earth's highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayan system
bars the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia.
Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same
thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer.
Though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through
the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. As in much of
the tropics, monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable: epochal
droughts, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have displaced or ended
millions of human lives. There is widespread scientific consensus that South Asia is likely to see
such climatic events, along with their aleatory unpredictability, to change in frequency and are
likely to increase in severity. Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level
rises and the attendant inundation of India's low-lying coastal areas are other impacts, current or
predicted, that are attributable to global warming.
During the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a
vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. Despite its position within a high-latitude belt at 55–
75° S—as opposed to its current position between 5 and 35° N, latitudes now occupied
by Greenland and parts of the Antarctic Peninsula—India likely experienced a humid temperate
climate with warm and frost-free weather, though with well-defined seasons.[3] India later merged
into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma. During the
Late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near theSouth Pole to near the equator,
where the Indian craton (stable continental crust) was positioned, resulting in a mild climate
favourable to hosting high-biomass ecosystems. This is underscored by India's vast coal
reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in
the world.[4] During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was considerably warmer than
today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which
spread northwards from South Africa towards India; this cool period lasted well into the Permian.
Tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion
hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a massive flood
basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma,[6][7] at the end of
the Cretaceous period. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T)
extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation. Elevated
atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formedaerosols such as sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid,
similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus; these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon
dioxide emissions also contributed to the greenhouse effect, causing warmer weather that lasted
long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20
million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were severe enough to
cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[8] The formation of the Himalayas resulted in
blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate
significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been.
3) Explain Climate of India- Hot weather season
Summer in northwestern India lasts from April to July, and in the rest of the country from
March to June. The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the
Tropic of Cancer. The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is
April; for most of North India, it is May. Temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) and higher have
been recorded in parts of India during this season.[15] In cooler regions of North India,
immense pre-monsoon squall-line thunderstorms, known locally as "Nor'westers",
commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till
the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience
mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28 °C(82 °F) to 32 °C (90 °F).
Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is generally common in alpine
tracts that are above 2,200 metres (7,218 ft), especially those in the higher- and transHimalayan regions.[30] Near the coast the temperature hovers around 36 °C (97 °F), and the
proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures are
higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast.
By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over 32 °C (90 °F),
while maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F). In the hot months of April and
May, western disturbances, with their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly
diminish in frequency as summer progresses.[31]Notably, a higher frequency of such
disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending summer) in
northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over
the past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there.[20]
Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent, with higher parts of the Deccan
Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler. Hill stations, such as Ootacamund ("Ooty")
in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas, with average maximum
temperatures of around 25 °C (77 °F), offer some respite from the heat. At lower
elevations, in parts of northern and western India, a strong, hot, and dry wind known as
the Looblows in from the west during the daytime; with very high temperatures, in some
cases up to around 45 °C (113 °F); it can cause fatal cases ofsunstroke. Tornadoes may also
occur, concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan. They
are rare, however; only several dozen have been reported since 1835.
4) Explain Summer Season.
Summer in northwestern India lasts from April to July, and in the rest of the country from March to June.
The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer. The hottest
month for the western and southern regions of the country is April; for most of North India, it is May.
Temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season. [15] In
cooler regions of North India, immense pre-monsoon squall-line thunderstorms, known locally as
"Nor'westers", commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till the
end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience mild summer) with
the average temperature ranging from 28 °C(82 °F) to 32 °C (90 °F). Winter lasts from late November till
mid March. Snowfall is generally common in alpine tracts that are above 2,200 metres (7,218 ft), especially
those in the higher- and trans-Himalayan regions.[30] Near the coast the temperature hovers around 36
°C (97 °F), and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures
are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast.
By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over 32 °C (90 °F), while maximum
temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F). In the hot months of April and May, western disturbances, with
their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses. [31]Notably,
a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending
summer) in northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the
past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there.
5) Explain South andwest ( advancing monsoon season) - retreating South
west monsoon season.
Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism
Organization defines tourists as people "traveling to and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes".[1]
Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In 2010, there were over 940 million
international tourist arrivals worldwide, representing a growth of 6.6% when compared to
2009.[2] International tourism receipts grew to US$919 billion (€693 billion) in 2010,
corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%.As a result of the late-2000s recession,
international travel demand suffered a strong slowdown from the second half of 2008 through the
end of 2009. After a 5% increase in the first half of 2008, growth in international tourist arrivals
moved into negative territory in the second half of 2008, and ended up only 2% for the year,
compared to a 7% increase in 2007.[3] This negative trend intensified during 2009, exacerbated in
some countries due to the outbreak of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline
of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million international tourists’ arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in international
tourism receipts.
Technical definition:
All movements of persons to specific cultural attractions, such as heritage, such as heritage sites,
artistic and cultural manifestations, arts and drama outside their normal place of residence.
Conceptual definition:
The movement if persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with
the intention together new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs.
UNIT-III
PART-A
1) Explain Natural Vegetation and Soils.
A phytogeographical region is defined as an area of uniform climatic conditions and having a
distinctly recognisable type of vegetation. According to D. Chattarjee (1962), India can be divided
into nine phytogeographical regions.
1. Western Himalayas
This region comprises north and south Kashmir, part of Punjab and Kumaon region of Uttaranchal.
Average annual rainfall in the region is 100-200 cm. The region is wet in outer southern ranges
and slightly dry in the inner areas. At high altitudes, snowfall occurs during winters. The region is
subdivided into three zones.
1. Submontane (lower, tropical and subtropical) zone: This zone includes outer Himalayas i.e.
regions of Siwalik Hills and adjoining areas from 300 to 1500 m altitude. Average annual rainfall
of the zone is around 100 cm. The vegetation consists of subtropical dry evergreen, subtropical
pine and tropical moist deciduous forests.
2. Temperate (montane) zone: This zone extends in the western Himalayas between the altitudes
1500 and 3500 m. The climate is wet between the altitudes 1500 and 1800 m and is drier at higher
altitude. The vegetation consists of wet forests, Himalayan moist and Himalayan dry temperate
forests.
3. Alpine zone: This zone extends between 3500 m and 5000 m altitudes. The rainfall is very scanty
and climate is very cool and dry. The vegetation consists of alpine forests.
2. Eastern Himalayas
This region extends in the Himalyas from east of Nepal up to Arunachal. The climate is warmer
and wetter than in western Himalayas. Tree line and snow line are higher by about 300 m than in
the western Himalayas. The tropical temperature and rainfall conditions result in vegetation of the
region having greater general species diversity, greater variety of oaks but lesser variety of
conifers than in the western Himalayas. This region is also divided into three zones.
1. Submontane (lower, tropical and subtropical) zone: This zone extends from the foothills up to the
1850 m altitude. The climate is nearly tropical and subtropical. The vegetation consists of
subtropical broad-leaved forests, pine forests and wet temperate forests.
2. Temperate (montane) zone: The zone extends from 1850 m to 4000 m altitude, about 500 m higher
than in the western Himalayas. The vegetation consists of typical temperate forests with oaks
and Rhododendron at lower and conifers at higher altitudes.
3. Alpine zone: This zone extends from 4000-5000 m altitude. The climate is very cool and dry. The
vegetation consists of alpine forests.
3. Indus plain
This region comprises a part of Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, a part of Gujrat and Cutch. The climate
has very dry and hot summers alternating with dry and cold winters. The annual rainfall is
generally less than 70 cm and may be 10-15 cm in some areas. Most of the region is desert today
though it had dense forests about 2000 years ago that were destroyed due to biotic factors
particularly extensive cattle grazing. The vegetation today consists of tropical thorn forests and
grasslands in some areas.
4. Gangetic plain
This region covers part of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and part of Orissa. Average
annual rainfall ranges from 50 cm to 150 cm from east to west. The vegetation consists of tropical
moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, thorn forests and mangrove forests.
5. Assam
The region covers most of the Assam. The climate is characterized by very high temperature and
rainfall. The vegetation consists of tropical evergreen and wet temperate forests in the lower plains
while hilly tracts up to 1700 m altitude have subtropical pine forests.
6. Central India
This region comprises part of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Vindhyan region and Gujrat. The areas are
mostly hilly with some places at 500-700 m altitude. The average annual rainfall is 100-170 cm.
Biotic disturbances are very common in this region resulting in degradation of forests into thorny
forests in the open area. The vegetation consists of tropical moist deciduous forests, chiefly Sal
forests in areas of annual rainfall above 150 cm and mixed deciduous forest in areas of 125-150
cm annual rainfall. Tropical thorn forests are found in the areas of annual rainfall below 125 cm.
7. Western coast of Malabar
This is a small region extending from Gujrat to Kanyakumari along Western Ghats. The climate is
warm humid having annual rainfall over 400 cm. The climate is tropical on the coasts and
temperate in the hills. The vegetation consists of tropical wet evergreen, moist evergreen and moist
deciduous forests. Wet temperate forests (Sholas) are present in Nilgiri while mangrove forests are
found in the saline swamps on the coasts.
8. Deccan
The region comprises southern Peninsular India from southern Madhya Pradesh up to
Kanyakumari excluding the Western Ghats. The average annual rainfall in the region is about 100
cm. The vegetation consists of tropical dry evergreen, dry deciduous and swamp forests.
9. Andman and Nicobar
This region includes Andman and Nicobar Islands. The climate of the region is warm and humid
with very high temperature and annual rainfall. The vegetation consists of littoral mangrove,
evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forests.
NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
India is situated at tropical latitudes and has diverse temperature and rainfall regimes. The overall
climate of India is suitable for the growth of forests. The climax formations of Indian subcontinent
have been altered much due to human activities in the last few thousand years. However, the
remaining vegetation shows that the natural vegetation of India primarily consists of forests. The
grasslands found in the region are not natural plant formations but have originated secondarily due
to destruction of natural forests in some places. Therefore, these represent various stages of seral
(successional) development due to the influence of a variety of biotic influences.
2) What are the classifications of forests in India?
The most important factors influencing the physiognomy, species composition, phenology etc. of
Indian forests are temperature, rainfall, local edaphic and biotic factors. These factors have been
used in the classification of Indian forests. Most detailed classification of Indian forests is by
Champion and Seth (1967) in which 16 major types of forests have been recognized. These 16
major types can be grouped into 5 major categories viz. moist tropical, dry tropical, montane subtropical, temperate and alpine forests.
1. Moist tropical forests
These forests are found in the areas of quite high temperature and rainfall. The forests are dense,
multi-layered and have many types of trees, shrubs and lians. These forests are further categorized
into 4 types depending on the degree of wetness in the area and the dominant life form in the
forest.
1. Tropical wet evergreen forests
These are climatic climax forests found commonly in areas having annual rainfall above 250 cm
and temperature 25-30oC. These forests are chiefly distributed on the western face of Western
Ghats, Assam, Cachar, parts of West Bengal, northern Canara, Annamalai Hills and Coorg in
Meysore and Andman Islands.
The characteristic feature of these forests is dense growth of very tall trees having height of more
than 45 m. Climbers, lians, epiphytes and shrubs are abundant but herbs and grasses are rare in
these forests. The carpet layer of herbs and grasses can not grow because very dense layer of leaf
canopy of trees does not allow enough light to reach to the ground.
Dominant trees in forests of west coast are Dipterocarpusindica, Palaquim and Cellenia while in
forests of AssamDiptercarpusmacrocarpus, D. turbinatus, Shoreaassamica,
Mesuaferrea and Kayea are the dominant trees.
Common subdominants in these forests are Mangifera, Eugenia, Myristica, Pterospermum,
Polyalthia, Elaeocarpus, Schlechera, Artocarpus, Memeocylon, Poeciloneuron, Cinnamomum,
Diospyros, Sapindus, Vitex, Holigarna, Alstonia, Hardwickia, Spondias, Dendrocalamus,
Calamus, Bombax, Veteria, Calophyllum, Pandanus, Cedrela, Tetrameles, Strobilanthes, Emblica,
Michelia, Ixora, Hopea, Lagerstroemia, several species of ferns and orchids.
2. Tropical moist semi-evergreen forests
These are also climatic climax forests found commonly in areas of annual rainfall 200-250 cm and
temperature 25-32oC.These forests are chiefly distributed along the Western Ghats, in upper parts
of Assam and Orissa and in Andman Islands. These forests are more developed in the northern
India than in southern India.
Characteristic feature of these forests is dense growth of evergreen trees intermixed with
deciduous trees that shed their leaves for very brief period of relative dryness. Average height of
trees in these forests is 25-35 m and shrubs are common. Forests have rich carpet layer of herbs,
grasses ferns and orchids.
Dominant trees in these forests are Dipterocarpusalatus, Hopea, Terminalia and Salmalia in
AndmanIsland;Artocarpus, Micheliaand Mangifera in Orissa; Schimawallichii, Bauhinia,
Phobe and Ammora in Assam.
Common subdominants in these forests are Mylia, Schleichera, Bambusa, Ixora, Calamus,
Sterculia, Webera, Strobilanthus, Cedrela, Shorea, Actinodaphne, Garcinia, Lagerstroemia,
Mallotus, Vernonia, Dendrocalamus, Pelvetta, Elattaria, Pothos, Vitis, Garuga,
Albizzia andDellenia. Common herbs and grasses in the ground (carpet) layer are Inula,
Andropogon, Crotolaria, Imperata, Leca, Desmodium, Fambosa and Woodfordia.
3. Tropical moist deciduous forests
These forests are found in the area having temperature of 25-30oC and quite high annual rainfall of
150-200 cm spread over most of the year but periods of rain alternating with very short periods of
dryness. In several areas, the forests have been converted into open savannahs due to intensive
biotic factors. These forests are chiefly distributed in a narrow belt along Himalayan foothills, on
the eastern side of Western Ghats, Chota Nagpur, Khasi hills, in moist areas of Kerala, Karnataka,
sothern Madhya Pradesh, parts of northern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Chief characteristic of these forests is dominance of deciduous trees that remain leafless for one or
two months only along with lower story of smaller trees and evergreen shrubs.
Dominant trees of these forests in north India are Tectonagrandis, Shorearobusta,
Salmella, and Dalbergia while in south India only Tectonagrandis and Shorea sp. are dominant.
Common subdominants in the forests are Cedrela, Albizzia, Terminalia, Adina, Melia, Sterculia,
Grewia, Gariya, Lagerstroemia, Cordia, Pongamia, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Chloris, Mallotus,
Anogeissus, heteropogon, Cymbopogon and Andropogon.
4. Littoral and swamp forests
These forests are found in wet marshy areas, in river deltas, in saline or other swampy areas and
along the sea coasts. They are chiefly distributed in deltas of large rivers on the eastern coast and
in pockets on the western coast (Tidal forests), in saline swamps of Sundarban in West Bengal,
coastal areas of Andhra and Orissa (Mangrove forests) and in less saline or non-saline swampy
pockets throughout the India.
Chief characteristic of these forests is dominance of halophytic evergreen plants of varying height
with varying density of plants in different area.
Dominant plants of tidal and mangrove forests areRhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Horitora,
Avicennia, Nipa, Sonneratia and Acanthus. In less saline swamps, dominant plants are Ipomea,
Phoenix, Phragmitis, Casuarina, Manilkara and Calophyllum. In other swamps, the dominant
plants are Barringtonia, Syzygium, Myristica, Bischofia, Trowia, Lagerstroemia, Sophora,
Pandanus, Entada andPremna.
2. Dry tropical forests
These forests are found in the areas where wet season is followed by a relatively long period of
dryness during which trees remain leafless. These forests are dominated by smaller trees and
shrubs and have abundance of shrubs or sometimes grasses. This category includes three types of
forests.
1. Tropical dry deciduous forests
These forests are found in areas having temperature of 25-32oC and annual rainfall of 75-125 cm
along with a dry season of about six months. Distribution of these forests in northern India is in
areas of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. In the southern and central India, these
forests are distributed in dry areas of Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is open canopy of small (10-15 m high) trees and
abundance of shrubs.
Dominant species of the forests in north India are Shorearobusta, anogeissus, Terminalia,
Buchnnania, Somocarpus, Carissa, Emblica, Madhuca, Acacia, Aegle, Diospyros, Bauhinia,
Eugenia, Zyzyphus, Lannea, Sterculia, Dendrocalamus, Salmelia, Adina, Grewia,
Adathoda andHelicteres. In south India, dominant plants are Tectonagrandis, Dalbergia, Kydia,
Terminalia, Pterospermum, Dillenia, Acacia, Diospyros, Anogeissus, Boswellia, Bauhinia,
Chloroxylon, Hardwickia, Soymida, Gymnosporia, Zyzyphus, Dendrocalamus and Holorrhena.
Subdominant species in these forests are Bambusa, Lantana and grasses like Panicum,
Andropogon andHeteropogon.
2. Tropical thorn forests
These forests are found in the areas of high temperature of 27-30oC and very low annual rainfall of
20-60 cm with long periods of dryness. These forests are distributed in western Rajasthan, parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamilnadu.
Chief charateristic of such forests is sparse distribution of small (8-10 m high) mostly thorny trees
with shrubs being more common than trees. The plants in these forests remain leafless for most of
the year. They develop leaves only during the brief rainy season when grasses and herbs also
become abundant.
Dominant plants in these forests are Acacia nilotica, A. leucophloea, A. senegal,
Prosopisspicigera, P. juliflora, Albizzia and Capparis.
Common subdominant plants are Zyzyphus, Anogeissus, Erythroxylon, Euphorbia, Cordia,
Randia, Balanites, Salvadora, Gymnosporis, Leptadenia, Suaeda, Grewia, Gymnoma, Asparagus,
Butea, Calotropis, Adathoda, Madhuca, Salmelia, Crotolaria, Tephrosia and Indigophera.
3. Tropical dry evergreen forests
These forests are found in the areas of relatively high temperature and small rainfall available only
during summers. The forests are distributed in some parts of Tamilnadu and Karnataka.
Chief characteristic features of the forests are dense distribution of mixed small evergreen and
deciduous trees of 10-15 m height, absence of bamboos and abundance of grasses.
Dominant plants in the forests are Memecylon, Maba, Pavetta, Foronia, Terminalia, Ixora,
Sterculia, Mesua andSchleichora.
3. Montane sub-tropical forests
These forests occur in the areas where climate is cooler than tropical but warmer than temperate
areas i.e. on the hills between the altitudes of 1000 m and 2000 m. The forests are dominated by
semi-xerophytic evergreen plants. This category includes three types of forests.
1. Sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests
These forests occur in relatively moist areas at lower altitudes on mountain ranges. Their chief
distribution is in eastern Himalayas of West Bengal and Assam , hills of Khasi, Nilgiri and
Mahabaleshwar.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is dense growth of evergreen browd-leaved trees with
abundant growth of climbers and epiphytic ferns and orchids.
Dominant trees in the forests of north are Quercus, Schimaand Castanopsis with some temperate
species. In the southern areas, dominants are Eugenia and members of family Lauraceae.
Common co-dominants and subdominants in the eastern Himalayas are Dalbergiasissoo, Acacia,
catachu, Sterospermum, Cedrelatoona, Bauhinia, Anthocephaluscadamba, Lagerstroemia
parviflora, Albizziaprocera, Salmella, Artocarpuschaplasha and Dendrocalamus. In the western
Himalayas, codominants and subdominants areShorearobusta, Dalbergiasissoo, Cedrelatoona,
Ficusglomerulata, Eugenia jambolina, Acacia catachu, Buteamonosperma, Carissa and Zizyphus.
Other common plants in these forests of both north and south India areActinodaphne, Randia,
Glochidion, Terminalia, Olea, Eleagnus, Murraya, Atylosia, Ficus, Pittosporum, Saccopetalum,
Carreya, Alnus, Betula, Phobe, Cedrela, Garcinia and Polulus. In the
south, Mangifera and Canthiumandclimers like Piper trichostachyon,
Gnetumscandens andSmilaxmacrophylla are also common.
2. Sub-tropical dry evergreen forests
These forests occur in areas having quite low temperature and rainfall. The forests are distributed
in the lower altitudes of eastern and western Himalayas.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is presence of thorny xerophytes and small-leaved
evergreen plants.
Dominant plants in the forests are Acacia modesta, Dodoneaviscosa and Oleacuspidata.
3. Sub-tropical pine forests
These forests occur at middle altitudes between 1500-2000 m in Himalayas. They are distributed
in western Himalayas from Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh. In eastern Himalayas, the forests occur in
KhasiJayantia Hills of Assam.
Chief characteristics of the forests in open formations of pine trees.
Dominant trees in the forests are P. roxburghii and Pinuskhasiana.
4. Temperate forests
These forests are found in the areas having quite low temperature along with comparatively high
humidity than the comparable areas of higher latitudes. The cause of high humidity is greater
rainfall in Himalayas except in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir
where humidity is lower. The forests occur mainly in the Himalayas at altitudes 2000-4000 m. The
forests are generally dominated by tall conifers or angiospermic evergreen trees with abundance of
epiphytic mosses, lichens and ferns. The category includes three types of forests.
1. Wet temperate forests
These forests are found at altitudes of 1800-3000 m in the cooler and humid mountains. They are
distributed in the eastern Himalayas from eastern Nepal to Assam, in the western Himalayas from
Kashmir to western Nepal and in Nilgiri Hills of south Indian.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests in the Himalayas is dense formation of evergreen,
semievergreen broad-leaved and coniferous trees of up to 25 m height. In south India, these forests
are termed Shola forests and mostly have 15-20 m high broad-leaved trees with dense leaf canopy,
abundant epiphytic flora and rich herbaceous undergrowth.
Dominant trees in the forests of western Himalayas are angiosperms like Quercus, Betula, Acer,
Ulmus, Populus, Corylus, Caprinus etc. and conifers like Abies, Picea, Cedrusetc. In eastern
Himalayas, dominants are Quercus, Acer, Prunus, Ulmus, Eurya, Machilus, Symplocos, Mahonia,
Begonia, Michelia, Thunbergia, Rhododendron, Arundinaria, Bucklandia, Pittosporum, Loranthus,
Tsug and, Abies. In the Nilgiri Hills, the dominants are Rhododendron nilagiricum, Hopea,
Balanocarpus, Artocarpus, Artocarpus, Elaeocarpus, Pterocarpus, Hardwickia, Myristica,
Cordonia, Salmalia, Mucuna and Dioscorea. In all the areas, the undergrowth is formed by
members of Asteraceae, Rubiaceae, Acanthaceae and Fabaceae.
2. Himalayan moist temperate forests
These forests are found at 1700-3500 m altitude in eastern and western Himalayas. These occur in
areas having annual rainfall above 100 cm but relatively less than that in areas of wet temperate
forests.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is presence of tall (up to 45 m high) conifers, oaks or
their mixture along with thin partly deciduous undergrowth.
Dominant trees in the eastern Himalayas are Tsugadumosa, Quercuslineata, Piceaspinulosa,
Abiesdensa andQuercuspachyphylla. In the western Himalayas, dominants in lower zones
are Quercusincana, .dialata, Cedrusdeodara, Pinuswallichiana, Piceasmithiana, Abiespindrew,
Cotoneaster, Berberis and Spire while in the higher zones the dominants are Quercussemicarpifolia
and Abiespindrew.
3. Himalayan dry temperate forests
These forests occur in the regions of Himalayas having very low rainfall. They are distributed in
both eastern and western Himalayas.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is dominance of evergreen oaks and conifers.
Undergrowth is formed by scrubs.
Dominant trees in the forests of comparatively drier western Himalayas
are Pinusgerardiana and Quercus ilex. In the comparatively wetter western Himalayan region, the
dominants are Abies, Picea, Larixgriffithia and Juniperuswallichiana.
Subdominant plants in these forests are Daphne, Artemesia, Fraxinus, Alnus,
Cannabis and Plectranthus.
5. Alpine forests
These forests are found in the regions of Himalayas having extremely low temperature and
humidity. The forests are dominated by perennial and annual herbs and grasses though some trees
may also be present in areas of relatively high humidity. Abundant lichen flora is characteristic
feature of these forests. This category includes three types of forests.
3) Explain Conservation and afforestation.
CAT in partnership with the Himachal Pradesh Forest Department is working towards the
protection of the environment and ecology of Dharamsala Forest Division which is under
pressure due to increasing biotic interference.
Forest degradation and habitat destruction are commonplace scenarios in the forests of India
today. Large scale human interference and accompanying anthropogenic factors have
converted pristine green forests into rocky, barren areas. The State of Himachal Pradesh is no
exception. The Forest in Dharamsala Forest Division has been degraded over time resulting in
empty slopes subject to all factors of erosion. Large scale exploitation of the land for slate at
the P 49 K Chakban area severely damaged the area exposing it to extensive soil erosion and
deforestation.
With the goal of restoring the P49 K Chakban to its initial state ,CAT embarked upon this
important Afforestation project in 2007. A complete scientific plan was drawn for the
afforestation of the denuded area.
In May 2007, the first phase of the Soil Moisture Conservation and Afforestation project was
successfully completed with the introduction of Dangis (Loose Boulder Masonry) on site. The
introduction of Dangis was to prevent water run off in the area, to enable soil moisture
conservation and to stabilise the area in preparation for tree and grass plantation. The Dangis
were also built using stones lying in the area.
In June 2007, pits measuring one sq. ft were dug to accommodate saplings of different
indigenous plant species before the onset of monsoon. Following this, in July - August 2007,
1210 of these pits were used for plantation whilst the remaining ones were to help retain water
and prevent direct runoff. Six varieties of trees were planted in the P 49 K Chakban area of
Dharamsala as a part of this essential initiative to increase the green cover in the area. Apart
from planting of more than one thousand trees, four different varieties of robust grasses have
also been sown to help bind the soil.
In May - June 2008, a total of 2629.6 cubic feet of Dangis was constructed in an area
admeasuring 210 running metres along the periphery. Fencing of this area was carried out to
prevent the entry of grazing animals. Along with this, the fencing done on earlier sites was also
interwoven with thorny bushes to enhance protection of the area from grazing animals. In this
phase, 250 saplings of various indigenous trees were planted some of them being
Quercusincana (Baan), Cedrusdeodara (Deodar) and Albizziachinensis (Ohi).
Through this project we hope to establish a model that can encourage similar activities and
projects which can be implemented in denuded/degraded areas with active participation form
the local inhabitants. We also hope to create awareness among the locals regarding the
importance of forest and benefits they can derive from it.
The project site was inspected in November 2008 by the CAT team. It was observed that the
green cover of the area had increased substantially. According to the locals the area has
stabilised over the period of two years as there was a decrease in the intensity of landslides and
the vegetational cover had also increased. This indicates that the technique of soil moisture
conservation and the afforestation efforts of CAT has been a success.
Soil Water Moisture Conservation and Afforestation work for the year 2009 began on 14th
May . The area enclosed this year admeasures approximately one hectare. This year’s site lies,
adjacent, on the left of the sites previously enclosed by us.
A large single Dangi, of the dimension 188 feet X 2.5 feet X 4.88 feet, was constructed at the
base of the site. This dangi will serve three major purposes. Firstly it will impart stability to the
entire stretch of land, secondly it will prevent goats from entering the site and thirdly it negates
the requirement of fencing on a large stretch. 7 smaller dangis admeasuring 955 CFT were
constructed in two nallahs that are path of heavy runoff during monsoon. Fencing was done in
areas that were prone to land sliding as construction of dangis in these areas was not advisable.
Poles and barbed wire from the previous sites were used. Total fencing done this year was 180
running meters. Bush fencing using Barberry branches was done for this year’s site as well
that done for the previous sites were reinforced.
There is a path running through our site that is taken by the villagers each year during
monsoon to take their cattle to higher pastures. After consultation with them, gates have been
installed at both the ends of the path. These gates will be kept locked and the keys will be with
the caretaker. In this way the site will not be accessible to all.
825 pits of 1.5 x 1.5 x 1.5 were dug at a distance of 6 feet for plantation. 3 labourers were
employed for plantation. Well matured cowdung was added to the pits prior to plantation.
Plantation began on 16th July 2009. Plants were procured from forest nurseries at Sukkad, Noli
and Kareri. We were joined by some local youths for plantation on 18th of July. The plants
planted this year include the indigenous species like:Prunuspardus (Pajja) 100,
Quercusleucotrichophora (Baan) 200, Cedrusdeodara (Deodar) 350, Albiziachinensis (Ohi)
50, Poplar spp (Poplar) 45, Soymidaspp (Dhuri) 80
Soil from areas where Deodars were growing was transported up the site and this soil was
added along with cowdung to some pits in which Deodar were planted. This was done to
ascertain if this technique can help increase the survival percentage of Deodar. Plantation was
completed on 21st July. This year’s terrain is difficult hence plantation proceeded at a slower
pace. A board bearing our name and web address was installed on the site.
Apart from the tree that we have planted over the years, quite a few number of Rhododendrons
have established themselves naturally which is a real good sign.
Our project site has developed quite well as a marked increase in the vegetational cover was
observed. Almost 50% of the plants that were planted last year have survived and some plants
that died were replaced by our care taker.
The land enclosed this year has a better soil cover that the previous ones hence we are hopeful
that the survival rate will be better than those achieved previously.
4) What are the classifications of soils in india
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has made an authentic and
standardized classification of soils and divided the soils of India into the following 8 groups:
(1) Alluvial soils
(2) Black soils
(3) Red and Yellow soils
(4) Laterite soils
(5) Arid soils
(6) Saline soils
(7) Peaty and Organic soils
(8) Forest soils
Alluvial soils
Nature of Soil.
The alluvial soils are of many shades depending upon depth, (deep and shallow), deposition
conditions (coarse and finer) and time (older and recent). In the western Ganga plains, Punjab and
Haryana, the quantity of loam and clay loam increases while in the middle Ganga plain sand
decreases and loam increases.
In Punjab and other plains, the excess of irrigation has made the soils waterlogged and saline
crusts have been formed. This has also caused the formation of heavy soils in low lying areas.
In the eastern parts finer particles predominate and loams and fine silty clays are formed. Due to
heavy rainfall, the alluvial soils have been laterised.
In the river valley plain of northern India floods result in deposition of silt. This new alluvium is
known as Khadar. The higher areas, where floods do not reach has old alluvium and is known as
Bangar.
Under the bangar deposits, beds of lime modules are found and are known as Kankar and these are
usually found in Haryana and are a good source of raw material for cement plants.
Along the coast of the Peninsula, where sea water enters the delta, saltish soils are the result. The
salt encrustations in Kutchch (Gujarat) shine with a glaze on sunny days.
In the north-west, the drier parts draw sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc. from the
depth and create a powdery layer on the top of the soil because of evaporation of water.
This layer is called Reh (Kallar). No vegetation grows on the Kallar land.
Alluvial soils arc found in two different and distinct regions in India:
(i) Northern Plains.
The whole of the northern plains; from Punjab, Haryana, U.P., Bihar to West Bengal arc included
in this region. The river courses and the deltas form alluvial soil regime.
(ii) Southern Coastal Area.
Starting from the Eastern Coast along a narrow belt passing through the flood plains, terraces,
deltaic and lagoon areas of the rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, etc.
Narrow areas along the coast and lower portions of the Narmada, the Tapti, the Sabarmati and the
Mahi also have such type of soils.
The alluvial soils are fertile and are responsible for making the northern plains, the granary of
India. Agricultural activities and crop productivity are attributed to these soils.
Black Soils
Black soils are said to have developed in the Deccan Trap area on basalt rocks in semi-arid
conditions. They are of three kinds- shallow, medium and deep. These are also called Regur.
They are deep black in colour but there is almost complete absence of humus. Water can remain
stored in the soils for a long period and this can continue to provide water to the roots of the plants
in the dry period.
That is why these soils are used for the cultivation of cotton even in those areas where irrigation is
not available. Their black colour is due to certain salts. On getting dry, the soils develop cracks.
The soils have some deficiency of potash, nitrogen and phosphorus but have lime, magnesium,
aluminium, etc. Thus they are fertile soils.
Such soils are in eastern Gujarat, south-western M.P (Narmada, parts of Vindhya and Satpura),
almost the whole of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, north-western T.N., western A.P, etc.
They are about 6 metres deep in the lower parts of the Narmada, the Tapti, the upper parts of
Godavari and the Krishna rivers.
Black soils are very conducive to cotton cultivation. The Deccan Trap area has become famous for
cotton cultivation because of these soils. In fact this region is called cotton bowl of India.
Wherever soils arc less deep as on the slopes of the plateaus and hills, and unable to hold water,
there instead of cotton, barley, millets, pulses etc. are grown. In areas of deep soils, besides cotton,
a host of other crops like tobacco, groundnuts etc. are successfully raised.
Red And Yellow Soils
The reddish-yellow colour is due to the presence of iron oxide. These soils are formed where the
rainfall is low and there is a little leaching lesser than that in the laterite soils.
Red soils are as such usually developed on old crystalline and metamorphic rocks. These are
sandier and comparatively less clayey.
These soils cannot retain moisture for a longtime. Use of manures increases their fertility. The
soils are deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen and humus. They are acidic in nature and have iron,
aluminium and lime in sufficient quantities.
If the soils are fine grained, they are fertile. These are porous soils. They are not fertile on higher
dry lands.
These soils are found in three regions:
(i) Central- From Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand to the south, from Orissa, eastern A.P and T.N.,
these soils occupy large areas.
(ii) Western- The eastern and south-eastern narrow belt to the eastern side of the Aravalis.
(iii) Eastern- Parts of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, etc.
If the soils are not fertile, millets are grown. Where they are deep, deep red and fertile, the main
crops grown are wheat, cotton, potato, rough grains and others.
Laterite Soils
These soils are in those areas which are hot and get seasonal rainfall. Due to higher temperatures
the bacteria eat away humus and the rainfall leaches silica and lime. As a result the soils are acidic
and are rich in aluminium and iron oxides.
At places where aluminium compounds dominate, the laterites are called bauxite. On account of
presence of iron oxides in them the soils appear red.
These soils are classified into three types on the basis of their particles:
(a) Deep Red Laterite.
They have excess of iron oxide and potash but are short of Kaolin. The soils are not fertile.
(b) White Laterite.
The colour of the soil is due to excess of Kaolin. Soils lose fertility at a faster rate.
(c) Underground Laterite.
The upper parts are dissolved especially in iron which settles down below the upper layer. This
makes the soils fertile.
Laterite soils do not retain moisture. The use of manure is necessary for increasing soil fertility.
Their occurrence is not spread on large areas but they occur in patches, however, continuous also
in some areas. Bihar and Jharkhand Plateau has laterite soils. They are in patches on the Eastern
Ghats through Orissa, A.P and T.N.
In the western parts of India such soils are in a narrow belt from the north to the south through
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala extending more or less continuously. Shillong Plateau has a
laterite soil belt which extends towards Sadiya in Assam.
Soils are useful for making bricks because of presence of lot of iron in them. Its form in-which
aluminium is in excess is called Bauxite and is used for extracting aluminium. Soils become fertile
with the addition of fertilisers and manures.
These soils are devoted to the cultivation of cotton, rice, wheat, pulses, tea, coffee, etc. These are
intensively cultivated in south India. Tapioca and cashew nuts are also grown in these soils. The
latter is a cash crop.
Arid Soils
These soils are usually shallow. They have sandy texture. They have low clay and salt content;
usually below 10%. The colour ranges from red to brown and light brown.
Due to high evaporation in arid regions, the soils suffer from deficiency of humus and moisture
but wherever water is provided through irrigation, soils become fertile. Though these soils are poor
in nitrogen yet they are somewhat rich in plant food.
The entire area, west of the Aravalis has arid soils. This is the part of the Thar Desert and it
continues into neighbouring Pakistan. The strong desert winds remove fine particles of sand to far
off places causing infertile barren lands.
The use of manures and provision of irrigation facilities to such soils result in fairly good crop
yields.
Afforestation can help stabilizing shifting sand dunes. Indira Gandhi canal has proven to be a boon
for the region by way of converting dry desert lands into blooming landscape full of greenery and
economic prosperity.
Saline Soils
Saline soils are found in various climatic regimes - dry, semi-dry and swampy. These soils possess
sodium, potassium and magnesium salts. Salts reach these areas by defective drainage and dry
climate.
The salts in their solutions move up and are found lying over the surface like a white sheet. Its
encrustation is very hard and inpenetrable. It does not allow any vegetation to grow.
The S.W Monsoons which cross Rann of Kutchch bring with them salt particles and form a layer
in the Gujarat state. In the swampy areas and in the coastal tidal areas, the swamps are saturated
with salts. These soils arc deficient in nitrogen and calcium.
The western Gujarat area (Kutchch) is known for these type of soils. These soils are known as
Khar, Khanjan, etc. In the Cauvery and Mahanadi deltas, the sea water makes the soil saline.
In West Bengal the Sunderbans are well known for such soils. In Punjab, Haryana, U.P and Bihar,
Saline soils are encompassing more and more agricultural areas. Same is the position in the
southern Indian states.
However, the fertility of soils can be regained by way of putting gypsum in the soils and
improving drainage.
Peaty and organic soils
A large amount of dead organic matter accumulates in areas which have heavy rainfall and high
humidity.
As a result these soils are saline, rich in organic matter (40%) but deficient in potash and
phosphorus. These are alkaline, heavy and black in colour.
Such soils are found in the coastal areas of W. Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, northern Bihar and
Almora area of U.P.
Forest soils
These soils are found in the hilly areas, covered with forests. The main characteristic of these soils
is the accumulation of organic matter derived from forest cover. The soils are not uniform
everywhere but there are variations in their distribution.
The soils are loamy and have silt in the valley areas and are coarse grained, kankar etc. in the
higher areas.
There are some important types of soils which have been spread over areas described below:
(i) Fine Textured Soil.
Usually the outwash and river valleys develop these type of soils. For example, in many areas of
upper Himalayas (Lahul-Spiti, Kinnaur and even in Ladakh), soils have not fully developed as
such stone, kankar and shallow soils are met with.
(ii) Alpine Soil.
In the higher areas about 3,000 metres high, the climate is cold. As a result, the soils have
undecomposed vegetative matter derived from grasses resulting in immature soils.
(iii) Podzol.
The area where Podzol soils are found varies in height from 2,000 to 3,000 metres. The soil
consists of partly decomposed vegetation derived from the coniferous forests that grow at this
height.
Heavy rainfall results in leaching of the soils and turns it acidic. Its colour is greyish brown. Soils
are not much fertile.
(iv) Lower Forest Soil.
The height of the mountainous area where these soils develop lies between 1000 to 2000 metres.
The forest cover is mostly of deciduous trees. The soils are brown in colour, deep and slightly
acidic. The soils have humus and are thus fertile.
5) Explain Soil Conservation.
Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from
the Earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, salinization or
other chemical soil contamination. It is a component of environmental soil science.
Decisions regarding appropriate crop rotation, cover crops, and planted windbreaks are central
to the ability of surface soils to retain their integrity, both with respect to erosive forces and
chemical change from nutrient depletion. Crop rotation is simply the conventional alternation
of crops on a given field, so that nutrient depletion is avoided from repetitive chemical
uptake/deposition of single crop growth.
Practices
There are also conventional practices that farmers have invoked for centuries. These fall into
two main categories: contour farming andterracing, standard methods recommended by the
U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service , whose Code 330 is the common standard.
Contour farming was practiced by the ancient Phoenicians, and is known to be effective for
slopes between two and ten percent.[2] Contour plowing can increase crop yields from 10 to 50
percent, partially as a result from greater soil retention.[citation needed]
There are many erosion control methods that can be used such as conservation tillage
systems and crop rotation.
Keyline design is an enhancement of contour farming, where the total watershed properties are
taken into account in forming the contour lines. Terracing is the practice of creating benches or
nearly level layers on a hillside setting. Terraced farming is more common on small farms and
in underdeveloped countries, since mechanized equipment is difficult to deploy in this setting.
Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical forests due to widening practices
of slash-and-burn and other methods ofsubsistence farming necessitated by famines in lesser
developed countries. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large scale erosion, loss of soil
nutrients and sometimes total desertification.
Perimeter runoff control
Trees, shrubs and groundcovers are also effective perimeter treatment for soil erosion
prevention, by insuring any surface flows are impeded. A special form of this perimeter or
inter-row treatment is the use of a “grassway” that both channels and dissipates runoff
through surface friction, impeding surface runoff, and encouraging infiltration of the slowed
surface water.
UNIT-IV
PART-A
1) Define River.
A river is a natural watercourse,[1] usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or
another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before
reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names,
including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, tributary and rill. There are no official definitions for
generic terms, such as river, as applied to geographic features,[2] although in some countries or
communities a stream may be defined by its size. Many names for small rivers are specific to
geographic location; one example is "burn" in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river
is said to be larger than a creek,[3] but this is not always the case, because of vagueness in the
language.[4]
Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected
from precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources such
as groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks
(e.g., from glaciers). Potamology is the scientific study of rivers.
Rivers have been used as a source of water, for obtaining food, for transport, as a defensive
measure, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery, for bathing, and as a means of disposing
of waste.
Rivers have been used for navigation for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of navigation is
found in the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed in northwestern Pakistan around 3300
BC.[13] Riverine navigation provides a cheap means of transport, and is still used extensively on
most major rivers of the world like the Amazon, the Ganges, the Nile, the Mississippi, and
the Indus. Since river boats are often not regulated, they contribute a large amount to
global greenhouse gas emissions, and to local cancer due to inhaling of particulates emitted by the
transports.[14][15]
In some heavily forested regions such as Scandinavia and Canada, lumberjacks use the river to
float felled trees downstream to lumber camps for further processing, saving much effort and cost
by transporting the huge heavy logs by natural means.
Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history.[16] They can provide a rich source of fish and
other edible aquatic life, and are a major source of fresh water, which can be used for drinking
and irrigation. It is therefore no surprise to find most of the major cities of the world situated on
the banks of rivers. Rivers help to determine the urban form of cities and neighbourhoods and their
corridors often present opportunities for urban renewal through the development
of foreshoreways such as riverwalks. Rivers also provide an easy means of disposing of wastewater and, in much of the less developed world, other wastes.
Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy,
via watermills and hydroelectric plants. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many
hundreds of years such as in Orkney at Dounby Click Mill. Prior to the invention of steam power,
water-mills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and other textiles were common
across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were established
at places such as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been a significant
increase in the development of large scale power generation from water, especially in wet
mountainous regions such as Norway.
The coarse sediments, gravel, and sand, generated and moved by rivers are extensively used in
construction. In parts of the world this can generate extensive new lake habitats as gravel pits refill with water. In other circumstances it can destabilise the river bed and the course of the river
and cause severe damage to spawning fish populations which rely on stable gravel formations for
egg laying.
In upland rivers, rapids with whitewater or even waterfalls occur. Rapids are often used for
recreation, such as whitewater kayaking.
Rivers have been important in determining political boundaries and defending countries. For
example, the Danube was a long-standing border of theRoman Empire, and today it forms most of
the border between Bulgaria and Romania. The Mississippi in North America and the Rhine in
Europe are major east-west boundaries in those continents. The Orange and Limpopo Rivers
in southern Africa form the boundaries between provinces and countries along their routes.
2) Explain North Indian rivers – Ganga
The Ganges (
/ˈɡændʒiːz/ GAN-jeez) or Ganga ( Bengali: গঙ্গা Gônga
,Sanskrit: गङ्गा Hindi: गंगा Urdu: ‫ گ ن گا‬Ganga IPA: [ˈɡəŋɡaː] ( listen) ); , is a trans-boundary
river of India and Bangladesh. The 2,525 km (1,569 mi) river rises in the western Himalayas in the
Indian state ofUttarakhand, and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India
into Bangladesh, where it empties into the Bay of Bengal. Bydischarge it ranks among the world's
top 20 rivers.[4] The Ganges basin is the most heavily populated river basin in the world, with over
400 million people and a population density of about 1,000 inhabitants per square mile
(390 /km2).[5]
The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus and is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live
along its course and depend on it for their daily needs.[6] It is worshiped as the
goddess Ganga in Hinduism.[7] It has also been important historically: many former provincial or
imperial capitals (such
as Patliputra,[8] Kannauj,[8] Kara, Kashi, Allahabad, Murshidabad, Munger, Baharampur and Kolka
ta) have been located on its banks.
The Ganges was ranked among the five most polluted rivers of the world in 2007, with fecal
coliform levels in the river near Varanasi more than hundred times the official Indian government
limits.[10] Pollution threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species, 90 amphibian
species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin.[9] The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental
initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus far, due to corruption and lack of
technical expertise,[14] lack of good environmental planning,] Indian traditions and beliefs,[16] and
lack of support from religious authorities.
The Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers. The Bhagirathi is
considered to be the true source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is
longer.[18][19] The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks
as Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier,
at Gaumukh, at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft).[20]
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their
five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are
the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, and Bhagirathi rivers. The five
confluences, known as thePanchPrayag, are all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream
order, Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda;Nandprayag, where the
Nandakini joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins, Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini joins;
and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to form the Ganges River
proper.[18]
After flowing 250 kilometres (160 mi)[20] through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges
emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, thendebouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the
pilgrimage town of Haridwar.[18] At Haridwar, a dam diverts some of its waters into the Ganges
Canal, which irrigates the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been
roughly southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern
India.
The Ganges follows an 800-kilometre (500 mi) arching course passing through the cities
of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which
contributes an average annual flow of about 500 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s).[21] The Ganges joins
the Yamuna at the TriveniSangam at Allahabad, a holy confluence in Hinduism. At their
confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3/s (104,000
cu ft/s),[21] or about 58.5% of the combined flow.
Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also called Tons), which flows north from
the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about 190 m3/s (6,700 cu ft/s). After the
Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an
average annual flow of about 234 m3/s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the Ghaghara River, also flowing
south from the Himalayas, joins. The Ghaghara, with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s
(106,000 cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the Ghaghara confluence the Ganges
is joined from the south by the Son River, contributing about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s).
The Gandaki River, then the Kosi River, join from the north, contributing about 1,654 m3/s
(58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary
of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara and Yamuna.[21]
Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns
of Chhunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna,Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj,
and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow south-southeast and at Pakur, it begins its
attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes on to
become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls
the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for
the purpose of keeping it relatively silt-free. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the
Bhagirathi River and JalangiRiverat Nabadwip, and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its
own. The largest is the Damodar River, which is 541 km (336 mi) long, with a drainage basin of
25,820 km2 (9,970 sq mi).[23] The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar
Island.[24]
After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as the Padma. The Padma is
joined by the Jamuna River, the largest distributary of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the
Padma joins the Meghna River, the second largest distributary of the Brahmaputra, and takes on
the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganges Delta, formed mainly by the large, sediment-laden flows of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at about 59,000 km2 (23,000 sq mi). It stretches
322 km (200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal.
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of
the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river system. In full flood only the Amazon
is larger.
3) Explain North Indian Rivers– Indus.
The northern Plains also known as the Indo - Gangetic Plain and The North Indian River
Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most
populous parts of Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all ofBangladesh. The region
is named after the Indus and the Ganges, the twin river systems that drain it.
The plain's population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming.
The plains support one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly 1 billion
people (or around 1/7 of the world's population) on 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²). Among the
largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain
are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh,Delhi, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Pat
na, Kolkata, Guwahati, Dhaka, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad,Multan, Hyderabad
and Karachi. In this region, it is hard to define where one megalopolis begins and one ends.
The Indo-Gangetic plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its
numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the
two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- andSatpura
Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises the Iranian Plateau.
Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley,
the Punjab Plain, the Haryana Plains, and the middle and lower Ganges. These regional
distinctions are based primarily on the availability of chender.
By another definition, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi
Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part
consists of the Ganges–Bramaputra drainage systems. This divide is only 300 metres above sea
level, causing the perception that the Indo-Gangetic Plain appears to be continuous between
the two drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas,
and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in
the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and
the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana
farmers are controversial, due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the
Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan.
The middle Ganges extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in
the east. The lower Ganges and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganges.
The lower Ganges is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into India After joining the
Yamuna, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the YarlungZangbo River and flows through Arunachal
Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh.
The region is known for the Indus Valley Civilization, centered in Pakistan, which was
responsible for the birth of ancient South Asian culture. The flat and fertile terrain has
facilitated the repeated rise and expansion of various empires, including the Gupta
empire, Kanauj, Magadha, the Maurya Empire, the Mughal Empire and the Sultanate of
Delhi – all of which had their demographic andpolitical centers in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
During the Vedic and Epic eras of Indian history, this region was referred to as "Aryavarta"
(Land of the Aryans) which was bordered on the west by the Indus river and on the south by
the Vindhya Mountain range. During the Islamic period,
the Turkish, Afghan and Iranian rulers referred to this region as "Hindustan" (Land of
the Hindus), deriving from the Persian term for the Indus River. This term was later used to
refer to the whole of India but even into the modern era, the dialect of Hindi-Urdu spoken in
this region is calledHindustani, a term which is also used for the local music and culture.
4) Explain North Indian Rivers –Bramaputra
From its origin in southwestern Tibet as the YarlungTsangpo River, it flows across southern Tibet
to break through the Himalayas in great gorges and into Arunachal Pradesh (India) where it is
known as Dihang.[3] It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south
through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges
Delta it merges with the Padma, the main distributary of the Ganges, then the Meghna, before
emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
About 1,800 miles (2,900 km) long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and
transportation. The average depth of the river is 124 feet (38 m) and maximum depth is 380 feet
(120 m). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in spring when the Himalayan snows melt.
The average discharge of the river is about 19,300 cubic metres per second (680,000 cu ft/s), and
floods can reach over 100,000 cubic metres per second (3,500,000 cu ft/s).[4] It is a classic example
of a braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion.[5] It is also one of
the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. It is navigable for most of its length.
The river drains the Himalaya east of the Indo-Nepal border, southern-central portion of the
Tibetan plateau above the Ganges basin, south-eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai-Bum hills, the
northern slopes of the Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains and the northern portion of Bangladesh.
The basin, especially south of Tibet is characterized by high levels of
rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586m) is the only peak above 8,000m and the highest point within the
Brahmaputra basin.
The Brahmaputra's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the YarlungTsangpo was
only established by exploration in 1884-86. This river is often called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra river.
The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female
names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma" in Sanskrit (putra means
"son").
The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and
2000s, there was repeated speculation about China building a dam at the Great Bend, with a view
to divert the waters to the north of the country. This was denied by the Chinese government for
many years.[10] At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on
Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which on a rare occasion brought together leading
hydrologists from the Basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for
China to undertake such a diversion.[11] However on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was
indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra,[10] but assured India that the project would
not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India.[12][13]
In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the Basin countries issued a
Dhaka Declaration on Water Security [14] calling for exchange of information in low flow period,
and other means of collaboration. Even though the UN Convention on Trans-boundary Water of
1997 does not prevent any of the Basin countries from building a dam, Customary Law offers
relief to the lower riparian countries. Also, there is potential for China, India and Bangladesh to
develop hydroelectricity projects and transboundary water navigation.
5) Explain North Indian Rivers – kaveri
The Kaveri, also spelled Cauvery in English, is a large Indian river. The origin of the river is
traditionally placed at Talakaveri, Kodagu in the Western Ghats in Karnataka, flows generally
south and east through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and across the southern Deccan
plateau through the southeastern lowlands, emptying into the Bay of Bengal through two
principal mouths.
The Kaveri basin is estimated to be 27,700 square miles (72,000 km2) with many tributaries
including the Shimsha, the Hemavati,
the Arkavati,Honnuhole, LakshmanaTirtha, Kabini, Bhavani River, the Lokapavani,
the Noyyal and the Amaravati River. Rising in southwestern Karnataka, it flows southeast
some 475 mi (765 km) to enter the Bay of Bengal. East of Mysore it forms the island
of Shivanasamudra, on either side of which are the scenic Shivanasamudra Falls that descend
about 320 ft (100 m).[1] The river is the source for an extensive irrigation system and
for hydroelectric power.[2] The river has supported irrigated agriculture for centuries and
served as the lifeblood of the ancient kingdoms and modern cities of South India.
The name 'Kaveri' is said to be derived from KaveraMaharshi to whom the river Goddess was
given as a foster child by Brahma.[citation needed]Another version says that the word Kaveri is
derived from the two Tamil words ka (fertile land) and viri (to extend). It means wherever the
river flows the land along its basin is fertile.
After the river leaves the Kodagu hills and flows onto the Deccan plateau, it forms two
islands, Srirangapatna and Shivanasamudra. At Sivasamudra the river drops 320 ft (98 m),
forming the famous Shivanasamudra Falls known separately
as GaganaChukki and BharaChukki. Asia's firsthydroelectric plant (built in 1902) was on the
left falls and supplied power to the city of Bangalore.
In its course through Karnataka, the channel is interrupted by twelve "anicuts" (dams) for the
purpose of irrigation. From the anicut at Madadkatte, an artificial channel is diverted at a
distance of 72 miles (116 km), irrigating an area of 10,000 acres (4,000 ha), and ultimately
bringing its water supplyto the town of Mandya.
Near Srirangapatna, there is an aqueduct, the BangaraDoddiNala, which was constructed in the
17th century by the Wodeyar maharaja of Mysore, RanadhiraKantirava, in memory of his
favorite consort. It is said to be the only aqueduct where the water from a river, dammed
upstream, is carried by the aqueduct over the very same river few miles downstream[citation
needed]
. This aqueduct also served as a motorable bridge until 1964. In addition to providing
many ancient and modern canals with water from the river for irrigation purposes, the Kaveri
also serves as the main drinking water source for many towns and villages. The cities of
Bangalore,[3] Mandya and Mysore depend almost entirely on the Kaveri for their drinking
water supply. In fact, the river is called Jeevanadhi which, in Kannada, means a river
supporting life.
The river enters Tamil Nadu through Dharmapuri district leading to the flat plains where it
meanders. It drops into the Hogenakkal Falls just before it arrives in the town
of Hogenakkal in Tamil Nadu. The three minor tributaries, Palar, Chennar and Thoppar enter
into the Kaveri on her course, aboveStanley Reservoir in Mettur, where the dam has been
constructed. The Mettur Dam joins the Sita and Pala mountains beyond that valley through
which the Kaveri flows, up to the Grand Anicut. The dam in Mettur impounds water not only
for the improvement of irrigation but also to ensure the regular and sufficient supply of water
to the important Hydro-Electric generating station at Mettur. The river further runs through the
length Erode district where river Bhavani, which running through the breadth of the district,
merges with it. The confluence of the rivers Kaveri, Bhavani and Akash Ganga (imaginary) is
at the exact place of Bhavani Kooduthurai or TiriveniSangamam, Northern a part of Erode
City.
While passing through Erode, two more tributaries merge.ThirumaniMutharu join it in a
village called Kududurai in Namakkal District. Noyyal and Amaravathi join it in Karur
district before it reaches Tiruchirapalli district. Here the river becomes wide, with a sandy bed,
and flows in an easterly direction until it splits into two at upper Anicut about 14 kilometres
west of Tiruchirappalli. The northern branch of the river is called the Kollidam while the
southern branch retains the name Kaveri and then goes directly eastwards into Thanjavur
District. These two rivers join again and form theSrirangam island which is a part of city
of Tiruchirapalli.
Doddabetta (2,637m) is the highest point of the Kaveri basin.