War, Peace and the United Nations
Origins of United Nations
Pair-Share
• What do you know about the United
Nations?
• If you don’t know much about the
United Nations, what do you think it
is based upon the name itself?
1941: Atlantic Charter
• The Atlantic Charter outlined a vision of the
postwar world that would set up an international
organization serving as the arbiter of disputes
• All of the principles outlined were strongly
supported by FDR, whereas Churchill & Stalin were
only committed to some of those principles by the
last year of the war
• It was only after four more years of fighting World
War Two and the great devastation of the war that
Churchill and Stalin came around to Roosevelt’s
position.
Allied wartime
diplomacy illustrated
that the Big Three
could not settle their
basic disagreements
The Four Policemen
• World peace was to be maintained by what
Roosevelt described as the “four policemen”the US, UK, USSR and China, acting together
to prevent conflict
• These four policemen, along with France,
became the five permanent members of the
UN Security Council
• The USSR initially opposed China’s inclusion
as one of the “policemen”, but Roosevelt
insisted. Churchill was not happy about it
either.
Three of the “Policemen” at Yalta in 1945
Steps Leading Up To Decision To
Create UN
• The leaders of the Allies met during the spring
and summer of 1945 to discuss what should
happen to the world once World War Two
ended.
• Many issues were addressed regarding how to
end the war with Japan, rebuilding the wartorn countries, and what could be done to
prevent World War Three.
• This is where the United Nations came in.
1945: Yalta Conference
• The Big Three agreed on
– Soviet entrance into the Pacific war after
Germany had been defeated
• U.S. wanted to have the Soviet Union participate in the
projected invasion of Japan because it could reduce the
number of American casualties
– Creation of a United Nations to preserve world
peace after the end of the war
– Division of Germany into four zones of occupation
based on the positions of troops at the end of the
war
• The United Nations was created at the end of the
Second World War, replacing the League of Nations
• US President Franklin D Roosevelt was a driving
force behind the creation of the United Nations
• The name “United Nations” was used by Roosevelt
to describe the alliance fighting the Axis powers in
World War Two.
“The (UN) charter points
down the only road to
enduring peace. There is
no other.”
- President Harry S. Truman
1945
Pair-Share
•Why do you think it took
the devastation of World
War Two for universal
support of a peacekeeping body?
Creation of the United Nations
• In April 1945, delegates from fifty countries met
in San Francisco full of optimism and hope.
• The goal of the United Nations Conference on
International Organization was to fashion an
international body to promote peace and prevent
future wars.
• The ideals of the organization were stated in the
preamble to its proposed charter:
• “We the peoples of the United Nations are
determined to save succeeding generations from
the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime
has brought untold sorrow to mankind.”
The Birth of the United Nations
26 June 1945,
representatives of 50
countries sign the
charter of the United
Nations at a
conference in San
Francisco
• UN officially comes
into existence on 24
October 1945 - now
celebrated as United
Nations Day
•
1945: The United Nations
• The United Nations Charter states the goals
and purposes of the organization:
–To maintain international peace and
security
–Develop friendly relations among nations
–To be a center for harmonizing the actions
of nations in attaining these common ends
Eleanor Roosevelt
• FDR’s wife
• Founding member of UN
• One of the first U.S.
ambassadors to the UN
• Pair-Share: What do
you think the message
of is for this political
cartoon? Why?
Pair-Share
• The next few slides have primary source
quotes from Eleanor Roosevelt about the role
of the United Nations.
• What is the theme that is repeated in the
quotes?
• Why do you think that is?
• Do you agree or disagree with the idea?
“ Security requires both control of the use of
force and the elimination of want.”
-Eleanor Roosevelt
“No people are
secure unless
they have the
things needed
not only to
preserve
existence, but to
make life worth
living …”
-Eleanor Roosevelt
All peoples of the world must know
there is an organization where their
interests can be considered and where
justice and security will be sought for
all.”
- Eleanor Roosevelt
Development of the Concept of
Human Rights
Pair-Share
• Before we examine the
Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, what rights do
you think should be included
in the document and why?
Human Rights Documentary: 9
minutes and 30 seconds
http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-humanrights.html
Definition of Human Rights
• HUMAN RIGHTS are the rights that all
people have by virtue of being human
beings.
• HUMAN RIGHTS are derived from the
inherent dignity of the human person and
are defined internationally, nationally and
locally by various law making bodies.
The Preamble to the Charter
WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED
• to save succeeding generations from the scourge of
war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold
sorrow to mankind, and
• to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the
dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal
rights of men and women and of nations large and
small, and
• to establish conditions under which justice and respect
for the obligations arising from treaties and other
sources of international law can be maintained, and
• to promote social progress and better standards of life
in larger freedom,
Brief History of Development of
Human Rights
• Enlightenment
– English Petition of Right (1628)
– English Bill of Rights (1689)
– U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776)
– United States Constitution and Bill of Rights (1789)
– French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen (1789)
The Petition of Right
• The Petition of Right, produced in 1628 by the English
Parliament and sent to Charles I as a statement of civil
liberties.
• Refusal by Parliament to finance the king’s unpopular
foreign policy had caused the king to exact forced
loans and to quarter troops in subjects’ houses as an
economy measure.
• Opposition to these measures resulted in arbitrary
arrest and imprisonment
• The Petition of Right was Parliament's way to demand
changes from the king
4 Principles of
Petition of Right
1) No taxes may be levied without consent
of Parliament.
2) No subject may be imprisoned without
cause shown (habeus corpus)
3) No soldiers may be quartered upon the
citizenry.
4) Martial law may not be used in time of
peace.
English Bill of Rights
• After supporters of Parliament won the
English Civil War (caused partially by the
king's refusal to sign the Petition of
Right), Charles II was forced to sign the
English Bill of Rights
• Statement of certain positive rights that
citizens and/or residents of a
constitutional monarchy should have.
English Bill of Rights
• Asserts subjects’ rights to petition
the Monarch and to bear arms for
defence
• Parliament must meet regularlly
• The king cannot do certain things
without the consent of the governed
(using democratic institutions)
Declaration of Independence
• On July 4, 1776, the American Continential Congress
approved the Declaration of Independence.
• Its primary author, Thomas Jefferson, wrote the
Declaration as a formal explanation of why the
Colonists declared independence from Great Britain
• Philosophically, the Declaration stressed two
themes:
– Individual rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness)
– Right of revolution when these rights are volated
by a government
• These ideas became widely held by Americans and
spread internationally as well - influencing
revolutions ever since (particularly the French
Revolution)
Constitution and Bill of Rights
• Written during the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, the Constitution
of the United States of America is the fundamental law of the US
federal system of government and the landmark document of the
Western world.
• It is the oldest written national constitution in use and defines the
structure of government and the basic rights of citizens.
• The first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill
of Rights
• The Bill of Rights protects freedom of speech, freedom of religion,
the right to keep and bear arms, the freedom of assembly and the
freedom to petition.
• It also prohibits unreasonable search and seizure, cruel and unusual
punishment and compelled self-incrimination.
• Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting establishment of
religion and prohibits the federal government from depriving any
person of life, liberty or property without due process of law.
• In federal criminal cases it guarantees a speedy public trial with an
impartial jury and prohibits double jeopardy.
Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen
• In 1789 the people of France brought about the
abolishment of the absolute monarchy and set the
stage for the establishment of the first French
Republic.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen (French: La Déclaration des Droits de
l’Homme et du Citoyen) was adopted by the
National Constituent Assembly as the first step
toward writing a constitution for the Republic of
France.
Pair-Share Activity
• In the next slide, there are a few primary source
quotes from the French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen.
• How do they reflect the ideas of the
Enlightenment?
• How are they similar to American documents?
Which ones?
Declaration of the Rights of
Man and of the Citizen
• The Declaration proclaims that all citizens are to be
guaranteed the rights of “liberty, property,
security, and resistance to oppression.” It argues
that the need for law derives from the fact that
“...the exercise of the natural rights of each man
has only those borders which assure other
members of the society the enjoyment of these
same rights.”
• Thus, the Declaration sees law as an “expression of
the general will,“ intended to promote this equality
of rights and to forbid “only actions harmful to the
society.”
Brief History of Development of
Human Rights
• Early Developments (cont.)
– International Federation of the Red Cross and Red
Crescent (1863)
– Geneva Convention (1864)
– Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)
– League of Nations (1919)
– International Labor Organization (1919)
International Federation of the
Red Cross and Red Crescent
• Formed in 1863 to treat
and care for those
injured in armed
conflict
• Expanded to include
disaster relief and largescale emergencies
• Currently exists in 188
different countries
Geneva Conventions
• In 1864, sixteen European countries and several
American states attended a conference in Geneva,
Switzerland
• The diplomatic conference was held for the purpose of
adopting a convention for the treatment of wounded
soldiers in combat.
• The main principles laid down at this and future
Conventions:
– obligation to extend care without discrimination to
wounded and sick military personnel
– rules on treatment and keeping of prisoners of war (POWs)
– respect for and marking of medical personnel transports
and equipment with the distinctive sign of the red cross on a
white background
Hague Conventions
• An attempt to create an international court to
settle disputes and avoid war
• Attempted to create acceptable "Rules of
War" to deal with the new more deadly
weapons that were being developed
• Created new rules for maritime conflict as well
• This was the first modern effort to create a
binding agreement to try and avoid the
potential massive loss of life that was seen in
the US Civil War
International Labor Organization
• Part of the Treaty of Versailles that
ended World War I
• Based on the idea that a lasting peace
must be based on social justice
• Hardships created by poor working
conditions and low wages lead to
unrest among working classes
• Helped to create international
agreements to improve the lives of
workers around the world
League of Nations
• Also part of the Treaty of
Versailles
• Key part of the Treaty proposed by US President
Woodrow Wilson
• Its Covenant, or Charter, included:
– preventing wars through collective security
– disarmament
– settling international disputes through negotiation
and arbitration
League of Nations
•
•
•
•
• Formed in 1920
• 58 Nations joined the League theUnited States never did!
The League became a place where nations could bring
grievences and discuss them in open
The League did not have its own armed forces and
relyed on member nations to enforce its resolutions
After some early success, the League proved to be
ineffective as nations fell back into the practrice of
placing their own interests first
The failure of the League of Nations influenced the
structure and power of the United Nations
Brief History on Development of
Human Rights
• Aftermath of World War II
–The Nuremberg Trials
(1945-1946)
–Tokyo Tribunals (19461948)
Nuremberg Trials
Defendants
Judges
Nuremberg Trials
• The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military
tribunals (3 judges) meant to prosecute leading Nazis
for “Crimes Against Humanity”
• 24 members of the surviving leadership of the Nazi
party were charged (Adolph Hitler and Josef Goebbels
had committed suicide) Some of the most notorious:
Herman
Goring
Rudolf
Hess
Ernst
Kaltenbrunner
Wilhelm
Keitel
Alfred
Jodl
Nuremberg Trials
• Prosecutors had to follow strict laws of
evidence and defendants had legal teams to
assist them
• 12 sentenced to death by hanging
• 3 life in prison
• 4 prison for 10-20 years
• 3 acquitted
• 2 never faced trial
– (1 committed suicide after his trial began; 1 was
old and very ill so deemed unfit for trial)
Tokyo Tribunals
Defendants
Judges
Tokyo Tribunals
• Just as with Nuremberg, those responsible for
Japanese atrocities stood trial for
– “murdering, maiming, and ill-treating prisoners of war
and civilians
– forced labor under “inhumane conditions”
– “plundering public and private property”
– perpetrating “mass murder, rape…torture and other
barbaric cruelties…”
• 27 high ranking military and government officers
were convicted and sentenced to prison or death
Tokyo Tribunals
High Ranking Convictions
Hideki Tojo
Prime Minister
Chief of Imperial
Japanese Army
Akira Muto
Imperial
Japanese Army
Nanjing Massacre
Seishiro Itagaki
Imperial
Japanese Army
Manchuria & Korea
Purpose of the War Trials
• Besides punishing those responsible for the
atrocities of World War II, the purpose was to
place the “Rule of Law” above all
• “Rule of Law” means that all people and
institutions are subject to and accountable to
law that is fairly applied and enforced
• This principle is the legal basis for Human
Rights laws and declarations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• The UN Charter empowered ECOSOC to
establish “commissions in economic and social
fields and for the promotion of human
rights….”
• Under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt,
United Nations Human Rights Commission
created the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights
• The Declaration was drafted by
representatives of all regions of the world and
encompassed all legal traditions
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Formally adopted by the United Nations on
December 10, 1948
• Most comprehensive universal human rights
document in existence
• Delineates 30 fundamental rights that form the
basis for a democratic society
• The Declaration is a living document that has been
accepted as a contract between a government and
its people throughout the world.
• According to the Guinness Book of World Records, it
is the most translated document in the world.
Pair-Share
• In the next few slides, there are primary
source quotes from the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights.
• What is the purpose or role of the document?
• How does this document reflect the ideas of
the Age of Enlightenment?
Modern Protection of International
Human Rights
• The Preamble to the United Nations
Charter states that the “Peoples of
the United Nations” are determined
“to reaffirm faith in fundamental
human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person, in the
equal rights of men and women and
of nations large and small.”
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration
unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all
human beings:
• “Disregard and contempt for human rights have
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world
in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of
speech and belief and freedom from fear and want
has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of
the common people...All human beings are born
free and equal in dignity and rights.”
Modern Protection of
International Human Rights
• In 1966, the General Assembly adopted:
–The Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (and its First Optional Protocol)
–The Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
which, together with the UDHR, are now
known as the International Bill of Human
Rights
Modern Protection of
International Human Rights
• In addition to the International Bill of Human
Rights, the United Nations has drafted and
promulgated over 80 human rights
instruments:
– genocide
– racial discrimination
– discrimination against women
– refugee protection
– torture
– the rights of disabled persons
– the rights of the child
Human Rights Violations
• While some gains have been made over the course of the
six decades since the Declaration of Human Rights,
violations still plague the world today
–
–
–
–
People are tortured or abused in at least 81 countries
Face unfair trials in at least 54 countries
Restricted in their freedom of expression in at least 77 countries
Women and children in particular are marginalized in numerous
ways
– The press is not free in many countries
– Dissenters are silenced, too often permanently
• The UN, its agencies, and other organizations
continue the right for Human Rights
Structure and Organization of
United Nations
The structure of the UN
• Security Council: responsible
for peace, has 15 members
• General Assembly: main
deliberative forum of the UN
has 191 members
• The UN Secretariat headed by
the Secretary General
• UN Economic and Social
Council
• International Court of Justice
based in The Hague, Holland
UN Human Rights Bodies
• Office of the High
Commissioner for
Human Rights
• Commission on Crime
Prevention and Criminal
Justice
• International Court of
Justice
• International Criminal
Court
• Commission on the
Status of Women
• World Health
Organization
• International Atomic
Energy Agency
• International Labour
Organization
UN Human Rights Bodies
• Treaty Monitoring Bodies
– Human Rights Committee
– Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination
– Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against
Women
– Committee Against Torture
– Committee on the Rights of the Child
– Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights
Pair-Share
• Which of the different bodies
of the United Nations do you
think are the most important
and why?
• Select your top three and
explain your reasoning.
UN Security Council
UN Security Council
•
The Security Council has five permanent members:
–
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
United States
United Kingdom
France
Russia
China.
10 other countries elected for two year terms
Not all members are equal: permanent members
have the power of veto
Charter gives the Security Council “primary
responsibility for international peace and security”
Five Permanent Members of the Security
Council
• These are the “Winners” of World
War II
–United States
–Soviet Union
–Great Britain
–France
–China
What power does the 5 permanent
members of the Security Council
have that the other Security Council
members do not have ?
VETO
What does the Security Council do to
maintain peace?
• If the Security Council decides there is a
threat to international peace it
normally begins by calling for
negotiations to resolve the problem
• The UN Secretary General or his
representative works with the countries
involved to settle the problem
If that does not work…
• Can impose diplomatic sanctions
• Can impose economic sanctions
• Can implement air and/or sea
blockades
If that does not work…
• If there is still no
progress the
Security Council
can authorize
military action
Recognized by their Blue Helmets
Achievements and Failures of
the United Nations
The earliest and most serious failure of
the United Nations involved
its inability to control atomic energy
especially the manufacture of
weapons
“It is our hope that in the years to come we
may look at this scroll and all that it signifies
with pride. Today that pride must be
tempered with a profound concern. If atomic
bombs are to be added as new weapons to
the arsenals of a warring world, or to the
arsenals of nations preparing for war , then
the time will come when mankind will curse
the names of Los Alamos and Hiroshima.”…
-Robert Oppenheimer 1945
The Weakness of the UN System in
Enforcing Peace
•
Veto power: the UN can only take serious
action when all the “policemen” agree:
“Decisions of the Security Council shall be made by an affirmative
vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the
permanent members”
•
Made the UN virtually powerless during the
Cold War
–
–
–
Hungary in 1956
Vietnam War
The exception was Korea in 1950.
The composition of the Security
Council does not reflect present day
realities
• Britain and France are members of the Security Council
only because they were victors in World War 2. Should
they still be there?
• Similarly, Japan, the world’s second largest economy is
not a Security Council member.
• Efforts to expand Security Council membership have
failed because countries cannot decide on how it should
be done.
• Probable candidates: Japan, India, Brazil and one African
country (Nigeria?)
In more than 50 years, the UN Security
Council has only authorized military
action in the following cases
•
•
•
•
•
Korea
Somalia
Bosnia
Gulf War
In all these cases different countries have
undertaken military action with the
permission of the UN.
• The UN itself has not gone to war
Typical UN operations are Peacekeeping not
war fighting
• These operations usually come into effect once a war is
over or to protect defenseless populations
• They monitor ceasefires, and help to maintain a buffer
between the warring parties
• The peacekeepers are there at the request of the warring
parties
• Their main role is to calm things and build confidence
among the warring parties
• Soldiers from different countries are assigned to the UN,
and are responsible to the United Nations, not their own
countries
UN Peacekeeping Operations
• At present, there are
40,000 UN peacekeepers
serving all over the world
in 13 UN peacekeeping
missions
• The first ever UN
peacekeeping mission was
established in the Middle
East in 1948 is still
continuing
UN Peacekeeping Operations
• The UN has no military force of its own, and is
dependent on other countries to provide
military forces
• The UN Charter requires countries to maintain
a certain part of their forces for the use of the
UN. This has never been done
• Instead of representing the world, the UN is
often pushed into becoming an instrument of
its most powerful members
Genocide in Rwanda:
“The UN’s Greatest Failure”
• During 100 days beginning on April 7 1994, at least
800,000 people, mainly Tutsis, were slaughtered by Hutu
militiamen in Rwanda
• At the time the United Nations had 2,000 peacekeepers
in the region, led by Canadian General Romeo Dallaire.
• Dallaire warned UN headquarters that a massacre was
being planned. His warnings were ignored
• When the massacre began, the UN Security council
members decided to reduce the force to 270.
Genocide in Rwanda:
“The UN’s Greatest Failure”
• France and Belgium sent in aircraft and troops, but only
to evacuate their own nationals.
• The United States did not want to get involved, and was
reluctant to describe the killings as genocide. Instead,
they were described as “acts of genocide”
• This was actually the biggest genocide since the end of
the Second World War
• Why did the world do nothing?
Genocide in Rwanda:
“The UN’s Greatest Failure”
• After the killing of 18 US soldiers in Somalia, no western
government wanted to get involved in another African
conflict
• Rwanda is of little strategic importance to the west
• Can a similar genocide happen again? Probably. Likely
places are in southern Sudan and the Congo.
• Will the world do anything about it?
Iraq:
Another blow to the UN’s authority
• The United States and Britain violated the UN
charter by going to war in Iraq in 2003
• The UN and the rest of the world could do
nothing
• But once Iraq was occupied, the US went back
to the UN for help in reconstructing Iraq,
conducting elections and so on.
Points to remember
• The United Nations can only do what its
members, particularly its most powerful
members allow it to do.
• When the UN is unable to act, it is usually
because one or two of its powerful members
do not want it to do so.
• The UN is not perfect, but it is the only
institution we have where countries can solve
problems together.
The U.N’s Strengths
• Picking up the pieces after a war ends and
rebuilding societies
• Providing a forum for debate and discussion
on issues facing the world (Climate Change)
• Acting as a coordinating force to provide aid in
a time of disaster
• Creating a world-wide voice that can
potentially defuse or minimize conflict
• Act as a force to help minimize further nuclear
proliferation
Social, Economic, Environmental Issues
•
Some of the Millennium development goals
by 2015:
– Eradicate extreme poverty - reduce by half the
number of people whose income is less that $1 a
day
– Ensure that all children complete primary
schooling
– Halve the proportion of people without access to
safe drinking water and sanitation
– In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies,
provide access to affordable drugs in developing
countries
Other areas the UN is active in
• Health, refugees, human rights, environmental
issues, sustainable development, promoting
economic development-all these issues
require international cooperation.
• The UN is the only forum for such cooperation