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C
h
a
p
t
e
r
Making a Living
This chapter introduces students to the
variety of economic systems that are
present in human societies. It especially
focuses on the distinctions between
foraging, horticulture, agriculture, and
pastoralism, and on models of distribution
and exchange.
14
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Adaptive Strategies
Yehudi Cohen used the term adaptive strategy to describe a
group’s system of economic production.
 Cohen has developed a typology of cultures using this
distinction, referring to a relationship between economies
and social features, arguing that the most important reason
for similarities between unrelated cultures is their possession
of a similar adaptive strategy.

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Adaptive Strategies
Yehudi Cohen’s Adaptive Strategies:
Adaptive Strategy
Also Known As
Key Features/Varieties
Foraging
Hunting-gathering
Horticulture
Slash-and-burn, shifting
cultivation, swiddening,
dry farming
Agriculture
Intensive farming
Continuous use of land,
intensive use of labor
Pastoralism
Herding
Industrialism
Industrial production
Nomadism and
transhumance
Factory production,
capitalism, socialist
production
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Mobility, use of nature's
resources
Fallow period
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Foraging
Human groups with
foraging economies are
not ecologically
dominant.
 The primary reason for
the continuing survival
of foraging economies is
the inapplicability of
their environmental
settings to food
production.

McGraw-Hill
A contemporary forager from Australia’s
Cape York peninsula collects eggs from
the nest of a magpie goose.
2002 by
The McGraw-Hill
Companies,
Inc. Geographic
All rights reserved.
Photo ©
Credit:
Thand
Samuels Abell
II/ National
Society
Foraging
Worldwide
distribution
of recent
huntergatherers.
McGraw-Hill
Source: Gäran Burenhult, ed., People of the Stone Age:©Hunters
andThe
Gatherers
and Early Farmers
(San Francisco:
1993).
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Companies,
Inc. AllHarperCollins,
rights reserved.
Correlates of Foraging
Band-organization is typical of foraging societies, because
its flexibility allows for seasonal adjustments.
 Members of foraging societies typically are socially mobile,
having the ability to affiliate with more than one group
during their lifetimes (e.g., through fictive kinship).
 The typical foraging society gender-based division of labor
has women gathering and men hunting and fishing, with
gathering contributing more to the group diet.
 All foraging societies distinguish among their members
according to age and gender, but are relatively egalitarian
(making only minor distinctions in status) compared to other
societal types.

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Horticulture
Horticulture is non-intensive plant
cultivation, based on the use of
simple tools and cyclical, noncontinuous use crop lands.
 Slash-and-burn cultivation and
shifting cultivation are alternative
labels for horticulture.

This man in Ranomafana, Madagascar, is
practicing slash-and-burn horticulture.
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2002 by
The McGraw-Hill
Companies,
Inc. All
rights
reserved.
Photo
Credit:
Paul Harrison/Still
Pictures/
Peter
Arnold,
Inc.
Agriculture
Agriculture is cultivation involving continuous use of crop
land, and is more labor-intensive (due to the ancillary needs
generated by farm animals and crop land formation) than
horticulture.
 Domesticated animals are commonly used in agriculture,
mainly to ease labor and provide manure.
 Irrigation is one of the agricultural techniques that frees
cultivation from seasonal domination.
 Terracing is an agricultural technique which renders land
otherwise too steep for most forms of cultivation
(particularly irrigated cultivation) susceptible to agriculture
(e.g., the Ifugao of Central Luzon, in the Philippines.

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Agriculture
Irrigated and
terraced rice
fields used
by the rice
farmers of
Luzon in the
Philippines.
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Companies,
Inc. All rights
reserved.
Photo Credit:
Paul Chesley/Tony
Stone
Images
Agriculture: Costs and Benefits
Agriculture is far more labor-intensive and capital-intensive
than horticulture, but does not necessarily yield more than
horticulture does (under ideal conditions).
 Agriculture’s long-term production (per area) is far more
stable than horticulture’s.

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The Cultivation Continuum
In reality, non-industrial economies do not always fit cleanly
into the distinct categories given above, thus it is useful to
think in terms of a cultivation continuum.
 Sectorial fallowing: a plot of land may be planted two-tothree years before shifting (as with the Kuikuru, South
American manioc horticulturalists) then allowed to lie
fallow for a period of years.
 A baseline distinction between agriculture and horticulture is
that horticulture requires regular fallowing (the length of
which varies), whereas agriculture does not.

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Intensification
Agriculture, by turning humans into ecological dominants,
allows human populations to move into (and transform) a
much wider range of environments than was possible prior
to the development of cultivation.
 Intensified food production is associated with sedentism and
rapid population increase.
 Most agriculturalists live in states because agricultural
economies require regulatory mechanisms.

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Pastoralism
Pastoral economies are based upon domesticated herd
animals, but members of such economies may get
agricultural produce through trade or their own subsidiary
cultivation.
 Patterns of Pastoralism:



Pastoral Nomadism: all members of the pastoral society follow
the herd throughout the year.
Transhumance or Agro-pastoralism: part of the society follows
the herd, while the other part maintains a home village (this is
usually associated with some cultivation by the pastoralists).
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Pastoralism
A female
pastoralist who is
a member of the
Kirgiz ethnic
group in Xinjiang
Province, China.
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Inc. Credit:
All rights
reserved.
Photo
Image
Bank
Economic Anthropology
Economic Anthropology studies economics in a comparative
perspective.
 An economy is a study of production, distribution, and
consumption of resources.
 Mode of production is defined as a way of organizing
production—a set of social relations through which labor is
deployed to wrest energy from nature using tools, skills,
organization, and knowledge.
 Similarity of adaptive strategies between societies tends to
correspond with similarity of mode of production:
variations occur according to environmental particularities.

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Nonindustrial Production
All societies divide labor according to gender and age, but
the nature of these divisions varies greatly from society to
society.
 Valuation of the kinds of work ascribed to different groups
varies, as well.
 Examples are taken from the Betsileo, of Madagascar.

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Means of Production
Means of production include land, labor, technology, and
capital.
 Land: the importance of land varies according to method of
production — land is less important to a foraging economy
than it is to a cultivating economy.
 Labor, tools, and specialization: nonindustrial economies are
usually, but not always, characterized by more cooperation
and less specialized labor than is found in industrial
societies.

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Alienation in Industrial Economies
By definition, a worker is alienated from the product of her
or his work when the product is sold, with the profit going
to an employer, while the worker is paid a wage.
 A consequence of alienation is that a worker has less
personal investment in the product, in contrast to the more
intimate relationship existing between worker and product in
nonindustrial societies.
 Alienation may generalize to encompass not only workerproduct relations, but coworker relations, as well.

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Economizing and Maximization

Classical economic theory assumed that individuals
universally acted rationally, by economizing to maximize
profits, but comparative data shows that people frequently
respond to other motivations than profit.
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Alternative Ends
People devote their time, resources, and energy to five broad
categories of ends: subsistence, replacement, social,
ceremonial, and rent.
 Subsistence fund: work is done to replace calories lost
through life activities.
 Replacement fund: work is expended maintaining the
technology necessary for life (broadly defined).

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Alternative Ends
Social fund: work is expended to establish and maintain
social ties.
 Ceremonial fund: work is expended to fulfill ritual
obligations.
 Rent fund: work is expended to satisfy the obligations owed
(or inflicted by) political or economic superiors.
 Peasants have rent fund obligations.

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The Market Principle
The market principle obtains when exchange rates and
organization are governed by an arbitrary money standard.
 Price is set by the law of supply and demand.
 The market principle is common to industrial societies.

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Redistribution
Redistribution is the
typical mode of exchange
in chiefdoms and some
non-industrial states.
 In a redistributive
system, product moves
from the local level to the
hierarchical center, where
it is reorganized, and a
proportion is sent back
down to the local level.

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These workers in Yunnan Province, China,
strive for an equal distribution of meat.
© 2002John
by The
McGraw-Hill
Companies,Woodfin
Inc. All rights
Photo Credit:
Eastcott/Yva
Momatiuk/
Campreserved.
& Assoc.
Reciprocity




Reciprocity is exchange between social equals and occurs in three
degrees: generalized, balanced, and negative.
Generalized reciprocity is most common to closely related exchange
partners and involves giving with no specific expectation of exchange,
but with a reliance upon similar opportunities being available to the
giver (prevalent among foragers).
Balanced reciprocity involves more distantly related partners, and
involves giving with the expectation of equivalent (but not necessarily
immediate) exchange (common in tribal societies, and has serious
ramifications for the relationship of trading partners).
Negative reciprocity involves very distant trading partners and is
characterized by each partner attempting to maximize profit and an
expectation of immediate exchange (e.g., market economies, silent
barter between Mbuti foragers and horticulturalist neighbors).
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Coexistence of Exchange Principles
Most economies are not exclusively characterized by a
single mode of reciprocity.
 The United States economy has all three types of
reciprocity.

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Potlatching



Potlatches, as once practiced by Northwest Coast Native American
groups, are a widely studied ritual in which sponsors (helped by their
entourages) gave away resources and manufactured wealth while
generating prestige for themselves.
Potlatching tribes (such as Kwakiutl and Salish peoples) were foragers
but lived in sedentary villages and had chiefs—this political complexity
is attributed to the overall richness of their environment.
Dramatic depopulation resulting from post-contact diseases and the
influx of new trade goods dramatically affected the nature of potlatches,
which began to extended to the entire population.
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Potlatching
The result of the new surplus, cultural trauma, and the
competition caused by wider inclusion was that prestige was
created by the destruction of wealth, rather than the
redistribution of it.
 Potlatches were once interpreted as wasteful displays
generated by culturally induced mania for prestige, but
Kottak argues that customs like the potlatch are adaptive,
allowing adjustment for alternating periods of local
abundance and shortage.
 The Northwest Coast tribes were unusual in that they were
foraging populations living in a rich, non-marginal
environmental setting.

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Potlatching
Map of Native American Tribes
of the Northwest Coast.
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