A neuro-architecture prescription for sensory compliant spaces designed for Adults with
Autism Spectrum Disorders.
.
Angela Bourne
Texas Tech University
English 5390 Writing for Publication, Professor Dr. Baehr
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Abstract
The objective of this article is to review and analyze existing sensory perception
literature related to behaviors in Aging Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders (A/ASD)
and to translate it into a design language that designers and architects can use to
create sensory compliant spaces for this population. Several environmental sensitivities
were identified and decoded for their relationship to Neuro-architectural interventions. A
design prescription was formulated and is presented as best practices for the design of
independent residences for A/ASD. This review highlights the need to merge
environmental behavior and neuroscience in architecture and interior design.
This study is shaped by our goal as environmental designers to provide evidence based
design research for the design of built spaces that resonate with populations’ behavioral
needs. It also, supports and recognizes human factors- individual differences
capabilities and limitations and appreciates the inherent design limitations (Sanders, M.,
& McCormick, E., 1993). Spatial cognition/perception, gestalt theory are studied are
examined to inform physical aspects of housing that support independence and aging in
place. Evidence of the importance of wayfinding and memory are presented in context
to successful aging in place. This study is timely in light of the fact that the population of
adults with autism is now increasing in size, as the first cohorts diagnosed in 1943 (the
year when autism was first described in the literature) have reached middle age and
their parents approach or are in old age.
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Introduction
"We must build a world free of unnecessary barriers, stereotypes, and discrimination....
policies must be developed, attitudes must be shaped, and buildings and organizations
must be designed to ensure that everyone has a chance to get the education they need
and live independently as full citizens in their communities."
~ Barack Obama, April 11, 2008
Facilitating opportunities for adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders (A/ASD) to live
independently as full citizens in their communities requires collaboration between
people who care and work with these individuals. Designers, architects, community
planners and housing administrators who engage in a plan that helps this group
transition to independent living is important. A projected 500,000 A/ASD in the U.S. are
expected to reach adulthood within the next 15 years. Currently, there is a limited
amount of appropriate housing to fill this need (Ahrentzen & Steele, 2009).To date,
support for independent living (IL) has been instigated and maintained by caring
charitable foundations. Their focus has been on the creation of communities rather than
institutions. They advocate village- like atmospheres as research has shown these
types of environments help individuals with ASD transition from their homes more
effectively.
In order to facilitate Independent Living (IL) for (A/ASD), a new paradigm is needed that
focuses on minimizing the symptoms (in particular negative sensory perceptions) they
experience. Reducing symptoms means creating environments that relate to how
A/ASD perceives their world. There is well recorded evidence that people with ASD
engage their senses much differently than ‘Neurologically Typical’ (NT), (Sinclair,
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Williams, 1992) people. (Delacato 1974, Kanner, 1943, Ornitz1969, 1989, Rimland
1964, Lorna Wing 1972).
When designing spaces for A/ASD it is important to have knowledge and understanding
of how autistic populations experience their environment and the people and objects
within it (Rapoport, 1982). How these individuals perceive, come to know, and
remember their environment, depends on their brain’s interpretation and their sensual
responses.
This paper presents an overview of the behavioral characteristics of (A/ASD) and their
relationship to the residential built environment. A literature review of behaviors and
environmental design features are highlighted to inform empirical studies and best
practices for the design of IL. The focus of the review is on how the built environment
can develop, sustain and nurture the special needs of this population while aging in
place. The findings are gathered to inform Evidence Based Design studies in the
profession of environmental design.
The link between the built environment and human behavior has long been of interest to
the field of interior design and architecture, but direct assessments of the links between
the built environment and the sensory perceptions of people with ASD are rare
(Ahrentzen & Steele, 2010). The concepts, theories, methods and processes used by
interior/environmental designers and architects provide a foundation for an emerging
body of research on the relationship between the built environment and people’s
behavior- Environmental Design (ENVD) This paper examines how sensory, visual and
spatial perception of people with ASD can shape, mold built spaces.
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Method
A literature review was conducted using keywords to indentify characteristics and
interrelated categories. The keywords included: architecture, interior design, housing for
elderly, environment behavior/psychology, Autism Spectrum Disorder, intellectual
disabilities, senses, visual and spatial perception, and aging.
Advanced searches using combinations of these descriptors were performed to gather
in depth information. Empirical research database used included: Ebsco Host, Google
Scholar, First Search, Medline Psyc Info, Psychology and Behavioral Science
Collections, Journals from, EDRA, HERD, Aging, Autism, Nature Neuroscience and
Texas Tech University Library.
Potential studies were identified from the review of juried articles, conference
proceedings and books. A variety of topics were synthesized for their relevance and
importance to the body of knowledge in environmental design. Conservants who publish
scholar work on Autism, Environmental behavior and psychology, neuroscience and the
built environment (neuro- architecture ) were identified to help inform and focus this
study. Exemplars were also sourced in the areas noted to help direct and formulate the
scholarly writing framework.
More than 1200 articles and 20 books were screened and converged for evaluation.
The studies were written in English and provide empirical validation of the affect of the
built environment on behavior and the need to address housing situations for aging
people with autism spectrum disorders. Seven books and fifteen journal articles were
identified as meeting the criteria.
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Synthesis of Review of Literature
Figure 1 Autism "triad" of deficits (Schultz, R. , 2005)
Communic
ation
Social
Interaction
Repetitive
Behavior
Autism is a complex Neurobiological Disorder defined by a "triad" of deficits (Schultz, R.,
2005) in communication, social interaction and repetitive behavior. See figure 1. The
signs vary enormously among individuals; hence the term spectrum is used to reflect
the wide range of occurrence and severity of these difficulties. Autism is referred to as
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in this paper. Challenges in communication include:
delayed or lack of ability to use speech for social communication, impaired social
interaction, impaired communication, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors. Many
researchers describe it as a pervasive problem with the brain is wired. Difficulties with
social interaction refer primarily to the belief that individuals with autism experience a
sort of “mind-blindness” in that they lack the ability to understand that others have
thoughts and beliefs (Belmonte, 2009; & Frith, 2001), therefore they often appear to
have a lack of awareness or concern for others. Repetitive and stereotypical
movements such as arm flapping, finger flicking or ritualized pacing and a narrow range
of interests are also prominent characteristics.
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Social Interaction Difficulties
Mathew Frederick, (2007) states: “The shapes and qualities of architectural spaces
greatly influence human experience and behavior, for we inhabit the spaces of our built
environment not the solid walls, roof, and columns that shape it. Positive spaces are
almost always preferred by people for lingering and social interaction. Negative spaces
tend to promote movement rather than dwelling space.” (Frederick, 2007, P.6) Given an
A/ASD reluctance to interact with people, positive spaces are the best type of spaces to
help them develop their skills. Positive spaces can be created for A/ASD by using warm
colors on focal points such as a fireplace in a great room. The warm color (Bellizzi,
Crowley, Hasty, 1983 & Augustin, 2009) draws them into the story telling environment
around the fire, which is also known to be inviting. (Alexander, 1977).
Additionally if spaces provide for both prospect and refuge they will also encourage
participation. Environments that include prospect and refuge are considered safe and
comfortable places to enjoy ones life in and that promote socialization. The theory
based on mans evolutionary past of living on the savannah refers to prospect- as
something good- weather, food and company of loved ones or people who care for you.
Refuge, is a place free from predators and harsh weather. Large areas divided into
smaller areas, areas with lower ceilings that permit looking out to more open spaces are
positive as they provide refuge and the opportunity to look for prospect. (Hilebrand,
1999 & Regnier, Hamilton, Yatabe, 1995).
Appropriately designed spaces can also assist A/ASD with understanding others
thoughts and beliefs and overcome their “mind-blindness”. Design, furnishings and
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finishes space that encourage appropriate behavior – “we learn from the space we’re in
influences us both on an emotional and a rational level and sparks into one action or
another.” (Augustin, 2009, P.15)
Communication problems
Articulating their needs and participating actively in conversation is difficult for many
A/ASD even though they may have had several years of therapy in speech
development and exposure to a variety of situation that they can learn from. The built
environment can help them model and join in by providing a common room in open
area and where pedestrian traffic is predictable (Regnier, Hamilton, Yatabe, 1995).
Situating spaces such as family/great rooms between areas of high activity such as the
entrance, kitchen and dining can promote communications. Lighting this area with
natural light also inspires communication as diffused natural- dappled light (White &
Hazzard 2000), makes one feel they are sitting under a shade tree – a comfort
perspective we inherited from our ancestors as these setting made them feel
comfortable know good weather surrounded them. Communication can also be
enhanced when A/ASD spend time in spaces they can predict. Forms and shapes that
are symmetrical, similar in proportion and scale all one o foresee and develop a sense
of comfort. Repetition of color, texture and pattern can further enhance a sense of
belonging and inviting (Reed , 2010).
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Repetitive movements
Repetitive and stereotypical movements such as arm flapping, finger flicking or
ritualized pacing are often a result of over or under stimulation through the sense. This
part of the triad as well as the other parts of the triad are elaborated in the sensory
portions of this paper and in the “Prescription”, see Appendix 1.
Current living conditions of A/ASD
Ahrentzen & Steele, (2010) report in their study entitled “Advanced Full Spectrum
Housing: Designing for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders” report: “for the most
part, adult children with autism are being cared for by aging parents who generally will
not outlive their offspring. Given a dramatic increase in the ASD population alone,
supportive residential settings for adults with ASD and cognitive/developmental
disabilities (C/DD) must be created as an integral part of a healthy community’s housing
plan and opportunities.” (Ahrentzen & Steele, 2010, p.6). The following diagrams
represent their findings.
Figure 2
Current Living Arrangements of Young Adults with ASD and those without special
needs, 2008 (Ahrentzen & Steele, 2010)
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Figure 3
Residency Trends for Persons with I/DD Residing in small and large settings (Ahrentzen
& Steele, 2010)
Figure 4, Out of Home Residential Placements of Individuals with I/DD (Intellectual
Developmental Disorders): 2006 (Ahrentzen & Steele, 2010)
Figure 5, Estimated Living Arrangement of Individuals with I/DD (all ages) (Ahrentzen &
Steele, 2010)
This data illustrates the need to consider housing for this population.
Making sense of how A/ASD view their world
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Since the beginning of the diagnosis of Autism, researchers (Asperger 1944, Bergman
and Escalona1949, Creak 1961, Delacato 1974, Kanner, 1943, Ornitz1969, 1989,
Rimland 1964, Lorna Wing 1972) have identified, reported and acknowledged unusual
sensory responses. Collectively they agree that A/ASD approach their world differently
then neuro- typical (NT) people (Sinclar & Williams, 1992). This misinterpretation is
referred to as Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) and described by the SPD network,
2007 as a complex disorder of the brain that can lead to behavioral problems, difficulties
with coordination, and many other issues. Others have ignored the sensory responses.
Temple Grandin, 2008 states the reason is because,
so many professional and non professional have ignored sensory issues
because some people just can’t imagine that an alternative sensory reality exists
if they have not experienced it personally…. That type of narrow perception,
however, does nothing to help individuals who do have these very real issues in
their lives. Even if they don’t understand it on a personal level, it’s time they put
aside their personal ideas (p.58)
This paper takes a human factors approach and acknowledges how A/ASD ‘think’ and
‘see’ the world around them. Differences in how NT individuals use their self
organization system to make sense of their world are highlighted and described based
on empirical studies. Several researchers have studied the self organizing efforts
people undertake and agree that it consist of a process in which energy from light,
sound and pressure emerges in spatial patterns across the nervous system. A spatial
map is created and enables one to be aware, attentive and adapt to numerous
situations in their environment. (Augustin, 2009; Hall, 1966; Hesselgren 1975; Kopec
2006; Nanda 2010; Sommer, 1969; Ziesel, 2005). This process is complex and relies on
temporal /spatial stimulations. If the process is too difficult for the brain to understand,
instability occurs causing a variety of behaviors that are atypical. People with ASD
11
experience these sensations and as a result, approach their environment with
trepidation. They may be reluctant to make eye contact, view the world from the side
rather than directly and need to constantly survey their surroundings before settling
down in a space to a task. Once they settle in their focus is often on themselves and a
gadget rather than people.
Sensory Perception in Autism
Unusual sensory experiences are dominating characteristics in people with ASD.
Evidence illustrating that these assumptions are true comes from research in the fields
of sensory deprivation and visual and auditory impairments. Sensory deprivation studies
(Doman, 1984) show that sudden and nearly complete deprivation of stimulation
through the five senses can lead to autistic-like behaviours (withdrawal, stereotyped
movements, etc. In the Geneva Centre for Autism a survey was conducted to gain more
insights into sensory experiences of autistic people: through the Internet autistic people
were asked to complete the survey anonymously (Bogdashina, O. 2003). According to
the data noted below there is evidence to show that people with ASD experience
different sensory responses in each of the major five senses.
Figure 6, (Bogdashina, O. 2003)
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As noted in the Geneva study, there are five main senses that we use to perceive our
world with; seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. Two other less obvious
sensory systems which are especially important to the design of environments for A/AD
are the vestibular system and the proprioceptive system. The vestibular system relates
to the positioning of the head in relation to the body. The proprioceptive system relates
to the position and movement of the body in relation to space and objects. These
systems will be dealt with more specifically in the second half of this article. Each of
these senses uses its receptors to detect the environment and produces nerve signals
to carry this information to the brain. Traditional behaviour studies of how the physical
environment affects behaviour provides context for perception, cognition and memory.
Sensory perception issues in autism require an understanding of the way in which
sensations are received and processed by the body. There are many different
processes to take into account when considering the way in which our world is
perceived and each of these may alter the way that we perceive depending on whether
they operate in isolation or in tandem.
A/ASD are known to be hypersensitive, they receive too much information via their
senses and their brains becomes overloaded or hyposensitive, they receive too little
information, hence the brain struggles to make sense of what little information there is.
Many experience both extremes in the same sense - they may be hypersensitive at one
point in time and then hyposensitive at another. These limitations make it difficult for
them to perceive their environment and develop spatial relationships and to orientate
themselves relative to their surroundings.
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This inconsistency in responses to ones environment poses many challenges for
designers who design environments do A/ASD, as it is difficult to design for both
sensitivities. The compromise is to find commonalities and address them in shared
spaces and reserve specific accommodations/applications for both hyper and hypo for
individual personal spaces. Appendix 1 decodes the common hypersensitivties and
hyposensitivities A/ASD experience and provides neuro-architectural interventions to
assist with the design of independent living environments that resonate with A/ASD
behavioral perceptions.
Vision and Sensory Perception
Vision has proven to be the most dominant sense in people diagnosed with ASD. It is
commonly recognized that information we receive comes into the brain through the eyes.
Any problems in the way the brain processes visual information can cause difficulties in
the general ability to function and can result in different disabilities.
In 1983, perceptual problems caused by light sensitivity were identified by Helen Irlen,
(1991), an educational psychologist, who worked with people who suffered from dyslexia
a common trait in Autism (Tsermentseli, S., O'Brien, J. M., & Spencer, J. V. ,2008). She
discovered that a visual perceptual dysfunction, unrelated to visual skills normally
assessed by ophthalmic and orthopic examination, may cause distortions with print and
environment. Helen Irlen (Irlen) suggests that there are people whose problem is not in
the processing of information but in the inability to get it through one of the channelsvision. She states that these individuals are highly sensitive to particular wavelengths
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and frequencies of the white light spectrum leading to rapid fatigue after only short
periods of reading, thus giving rise to a reading disability, headaches and stress. Irlen
called the cluster of symptoms of this dysfunction Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome (SSS).
Some of the systems that impact spatial perception are:
1.
Light sensitivity: Difficulty concentrating or discomfort in fluorescent
lighting, bright sunlight, glare or lights at night.
2.
Contrast and color sensitivity: Problems with high contrast such as black
on white, bright colors, and busy patterns such as stripes and polka dots.
Poor depth perception: Inability to judge distances or spatial relationships
affecting small and gross motor co-ordination. May be unsure or have
difficulty with such things as escalators, stairs, ball sports, or driving.
3.
Strain and fatigue: Physical symptoms are varied and include, but are not
limited to, fatigue, tiredness, headaches, fidgetiness, distractibility and
hyperactivity.
4.
Attention deficit: Problems concentrating while doing tasks such as
reading, writing, computer use, looking, and even listening. (Irlen, 1991)
Appendix 1, decodes the SS/IS formulated by (Irlen,1991) and provides neuroarchitectural interventions to assist with the design of independent living environments
that resonate with A/ASD behavioral perceptions.
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Vision the brain and Sensory Perception
While tracking the correlation between eye movements and brain activity, the
researchers found that in autistic subjects, the amygdala -- an emotion center in the
brain becomes more active. The researchers also report that because autistic children
avert eye contact, the brain's fusiform region, which is critical for face perception, is less
active than with NT people.
A University of Wisconsin, Madison study for example, found that autistic children avoid
eye contact because they may see even familiar faces as threats. “The circles show
where on a face the study subjects gazed, with larger circles indicating a longer gaze
time. The straight lines show eye movement. The black dot in the depicted brain slice at
the bottom right hand corner is the amygdala cluster, which showed greater activation in
autistic individuals (Dalton, 2006).
Figure 7, (Dalton, 2006).
Most people with ASD see well and often have 20/20 vision. So why is it that they see
and digest what they see it such different ways from NT people? Kaplan, (2006) says it
is because “We see with not just with our eyes but with our brains” (Kaplan, p.28) and
children with ASD have neurological problems that prevent them from correctly
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interpreting what they see. People with ASD use visual information inefficiently. They
have problems coordinating their (central) focal and (peripheral) ambient vision. They
appear to be able to adapt more quickly to focal vision and when they do, they shut
down their ambient vision and remain fixed on a task or object for excessive periods of
time. Optometrist’s address any weakness in this area by prescribing glasses or
surgery. Ambient vision is more dynamic and involves the entire visual field. This type of
vision allows one to determine where they are in space and relies on neural feedback
from the other senses. Most people with ASD have a preference for focal vision, hence
their ambient vision is compromised and they have difficulty with spatial perception
which affects their ability to judge movement and distances. “We use out ambient vision
to tell how far away objects are , how fast they’re moving, what people’s body language
means, and even where are bodies end and the outside world begins” (Williams, 1998).
Avoidance of direct perception for them is another involuntary adaptation that helps
them to survive in a sensory distorted world. Autistic people seem to find that direct
perception often leads to hypersensitivity. Donna Williams (1996) describes an autistic
girl who can often make better meaning out of what she hears or sees by looking or
listening peripherally (such as out of the corner of her eye or by looking at or listening to
something else). In this case it is a kind of indirectly-confrontational approach in contrast
to ‘normal’ directly-confrontational one (Williams, 1998). Indirectly-confrontational
communication can mean that if something needs explaining or showing, the person
explaining or showing can do so as if out loud to themselves, addressing the wall or the
floor, or one’s shoes, or the objects relating to the demonstration. The person with a
problem of overload should be allowed, similarly, address and interact with you through
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speaking out loud with you ‘in mind’. This aspect is important to the spatial layout of a
space such as independent living facilities that expect all residents to participate in the
daily running of the home. They will be given tasks to perform and provided with
direction on how to execute the task. Providing spaces that allow for personal
orientation – spatial distance and time to digest information in the way that works best
for A/ASD will assist and help them independently to adjust and participate in the
different daily activities.
Neurology and ‘Sense of Place’ in A/ASD
Given the brain controls vision, somatic sensory experiences, motor control and helps
us navigate through space, understating how it works as well as the mind is integral to
the creation environments that function well for people with ASD. Several categories of
perception have been identified as part of the interpretative process of making meaning
of one’s world. In the design field, spatial and visual perceptions are two of the most
common referenced when creating built environments for people to live and learn in.
Spatial cognition/perception
The entire information gathering and processing a person’s brain goes through to build
meaning of their world is complex. The constant engagement of their senses,
examining, re-examining, sifting and filtering of external stimulus requires an interface
and interconnection between themselves and their environment. As the information
comes into their brain, they organize the incoming information into patterns of
recognition and develop their understanding of a particular situation (cognition). An
important part of this learning process is the development of spatial cognition. The
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vestibular system and the proprioceptive system are the main facilitators of spatial
information processing. The vestibular system relate to the positioning of the head in
relation to the body. The proprioceptive sense refers to the sensory input and feedback
that tells us about movement and body position. It is regulated by ones muscles, joints,
ligaments, tendons, and connective tissues and it is one of the "deep senses" and could
be considered the "position sense" (Carol Stock Kranowitz, 2006, p.58). If this system is
not well- developed, the ability to touch, see, and hear can be distorted. One may not
know where one is in space, have a sense of time, and even their sense of humor can
be distorted in such a way that the individual has difficulty perceiving the world correctly.
Visual, auditory, and tactile responses must be able to perceive, interpret and process
information so that an A/ASD can move through the world around him/her. Without good
sensory integration, learning and behavior is more difficult and the individual often feels
uncomfortable about him/her self, and cannot easily cope with ordinary demands and
stress of everyday life. Adults with a weak proprioceptive system may get lost easily
given they are unable to make connections to where they have been and what they
have seen. There is an entire field of Evidence Based Neuroscience (EBN) that is
devoted to navigation; it is called wayfinding.
Wayfinding
Wayfinding uses landmarks and grids to help people orient themselves in a given
space. Most people use both methods; often men will navigate using cardinal directions
and route names whereas women will use land makers (Augustin, 2009). Carefully laid
out landmarks and gridded spaces have the ability to leave lasting impression on people
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and help them remember where they have been, what they are able to see/sense and
make connections with the space around them. The manipulation of the built space has
potential to facilitate good wayfinding. Various applications of the elements and principle
of design such as pattern, texture, light and color in the spatial envelope can make a
difference to whether or not an A/ASD gets to where he needs to be. Familiarly
markers, predictability in the shapes and forms and transparency can encourage
independence and elevate their self esteem. Careful execution of spaces that create
emphasis, dominance and repetition of form can also help A/ASD find their way,
remember and feel comfortable in their environments. Collaborative research with
neuroscientist can also help develop this area of specialty given “the problem of sensory
binding has been difficult for neuroscientist to solve.” (Sternberg, 2009, p.86).
Environments that are designed to help A/ASD “find their “way” are especially helpful
given people with ASD have poor pre-prioceptive awareness. “Distorted body postures
such as toe walking, arching of the back, and hyperextension of the neck” (Carmody,
Kaplan, Gaydos, 2001, p.233) are physical examples of characteristics which contribute
to these shortcomings. These disturbances in motion and gait influence their visual
perception and consequently their balance and spatial orientation. This visual
dysfunction prevents A/ASD from experiencing an integrated visual perception of events
and objects in their environment. Some people with ASD lose track of their own position
in space, compromising their posture and self-esteem. To many, they are clumsy and
awkward. Research has speculated that the cause for this distortion is partially due to a
deficit in their ambient vision. As noted above, ambient vision is used for orientating
oneself to their environment, movement and depth. Ambient vision is crucial for spatial
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orientation, the maintenance of body posture, perception of self-motion, and locomotion.
(Kaplan, Carmody, Gaydos, 2001, pp. 81-82).
Spatial Orientation /Perception
A well-developed proprioceptive sense, relies on good viso-spatial perception. Visospatial processing or spatial relations refer to the capacity to localize objects in relation
to each other and understand the location of objects with respect to oneself. Through
the ability of spatial relations an individual can judge distances, distinguish forms and
separate objects from a surrounding background. “Spatial relations are important to
orientating in the environment; recognizing objects, scenes, and language and for
manipulation of objects within the hand.” (Zolton, 2006, p.56). Spatial orientation
requires looking at humans and their environment as one rather than two separate
entities. Three of the most distinct approaches to this interface are: 1) Gibson’s (1966)
notion of “flowfields”, 2) Hall (1969) notion of invisible bubbles and 3) Sommer, (1969)
notion of “personal space” and “territory”. All three theories serve as valuable models for
the development of spaces which help A/ASD make sense of their world. In Gibson’s
theory, perception is anchored on kinetic action within the body and the environment is
something that flows by. Hall (1969) theory is based on a person having a series of
invisible bubbles. His work falls within the field of study known as “proximetrics” which
he defined as “the interrelated observations and theories of man’s use of space as
specialized elaboration of culture”. (Hall, 1969, p.98). Sommer, (1969) theory is based
on individual boundaries, into which intruders are not allowed. The boundaries of
individuals vary according to the situation and are flexible depending on the context, i.e.
walking on a sidewalk, in the mall, with a loved one verse a stranger. Generally people
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require a larger personal space- bigger bubble when they are in the company of
strangers and in unfamiliar spaces. Given the residents living in the IL are unrelated and
most likely will initially consider their housemates as strangers common public spaces
need to be designed with more opportunities for privacy. Common- public areas like the
kitchen family room and dining areas that are planned and allow for easing into the
social setting are best given the sensitivities observed. Areas that are designed to allow
A/ASD to gradually experience their environment are also necessary. Open concepts
that permit viewing from a distance help accommodate this sensitivity. Larger spaces
that are divided into smaller portions either visually or physically can help provide
opportunities for adjustment and privacy (Alexander, 1977). Private, personalized areas
such as a bedroom a person can call their own are also important for adaptation as they
support A/ASD identity and self importance.
These observations demonstrate the importance for designers to create spaces that are
easily identifiable. Uncluttered spaces which include spatial zones, repetition of form,
finishes and furniture and fixtures help A/ASD conceptualize a space and orientate them
in a comfortable position to establish their “nest”- home. Independent living
environments “designed with an understanding of the brains and minds of A/ASD
respond to the attributes of spaces and places can lead to enhanced (learning) living.”
(Eberhard 2009, p.46). Neuroscience tells us that the brain plays a major role in
learning, memory, orientation and perception. Zeisel, ( 2006) supports the blending of
Environmental Behavior with Neuroscience (EBN) and says, “Only by including
neuroscience in environmental behavior studies (EB) can we understand the interaction
22
between environmental stimulus and behavioral responses in ways that inform and
improve design.” (Zeisel, 2006, p.56).
Memory and perception
The memory stores a perception as an unprocessed, uninterrupted image
and a trigger may bring that memory to the forefront. For example when we smell a
particular perfume and we are momentarily transported back to a time and place when
and where we smelt the same aroma. Lilies at Easter, Thanksgiving turkey, cotton
candy at the local fair, your sisters’ hairspray, baby powder and cinnamon buns can all
evoke memories and are important, especially to your memory of places, appropriate
behaviors and where you are in place and time. In an IL the location of the kitchen for
example can emit scents that trigger A/ASD memory and remind them where they are in
space and what type of behavior is acceptable. Locating the kitchen in a residence so
that it is open to hallways and public spaces can help a person who may feel lost. Ziesel
(2005) reinforces this and says: “Memory begins for a person when she/he has an
experience and perceives what happened, where it happened, who is there, what their
role was in the experience and the feeling she had at the time (Zeisel 2006, P.98). The
physical environment plays a crucial role in remembering. Our brains perform several
different connected actions when remembering the space which we inhabit. They are
called cognitive maps.” Landmark objects contribute to cognize maps and play a central
role in spatial orientation” (Zeisel, 2006, p.149). Shapes, forms, textures patterns, and
light help A/ASD create landmarks in their living space. They are instrumental to the
development of sense of space and remembering. Schatcher (1996) states, “Awareness
of space is crucial to the definition of memory.” Physical environment is therefore
23
essential to memory construction and creation of the remembered experience in IL
residences is crucial to successful ageing in place.
Gestalt perception
The most noticeable feature of A/ASD is that their senses are too open. The impact of
every day experiences are often traumatic for them as they do not have the ability to
filter, select and put information together like NT individuals. Although, they prefer to
experience their world in a regular, orderly, simplified and systematical manner as
noted in the Gestalt psychology theory practiced in design/architecture professions, they
have “difficulty in separating a single detailed the scene from the whole picture”
(Bogdashin, 2010, p. 62). In the autism research, if a child displays these
characteristics they are known to have “gestalt perception”. They see things as patterns
rather than functional objects and have an inability to integrate it all together- they can’t
“see the forest for the trees.”
Tito Mukhopadhyay an adult with ASD, recalls how upon entering a reception party he
“found himself in a crowded room, which had a high ceiling, many doors, and several
pictures on the walls, where every corner seemed to demand his attention; colors and
voices competed with each other, making it hard to focus on anything” ( Mukhopadhyay,
2008). Awareness of these types of perceptual deficiencies is important to designers as
it provides then with benchmarks to measure how well or well not a space functions for
A/ASD and can assist them in redesigning and or creating new spaces that relate to the
challenges gestalt perception deficit pose. The lack of ability to decipher and filter
information makes it difficult for individuals to maneuver through a space with ease.
24
Take the person who kicks the wall as he walks down a corridor or from room to room
for example. One’s first thought is they are angry and acting out physical. This is not the
case with people who have gestalt perception, they kick the wall to register where they
are in space as the horizontal and vertical planes are no more than objects on the move
to them. (Bogdashin, 2010) Kicking the wall helps them orientate themselves and allows
them to confidently maneuver through a space. This challenge could be why A/ASD
often like routine and predictability and find going to new spaces stressful.
Gestalt perception not only occurs in a physical sense, it also occurs in visual
perception. Light, shade, tints tones and shades have different meaning to A/ASD. One
woman recalls her experience as a young child in learning how to draw a face. She
says: “the faces teachers trained me to draw had nothing to do with what I
conceptualized as a face. I had no idea why the face I was expected to draw had a
circle as its starting point and two smaller circles in the top half”……to her, “faces was
the long mouth-to-inner eye shadows which ran along the nose.” (Bogdashina ,2010, p.
63). This example illustrates the importance of designing living spaces for A/ASD that
minimize, shadows, glare and reflections.
What is an Independent Living Community?
The national health organization, care specialist and parents of young A/ASD realize the
need to create independent living (IL) environments for this aging population. IL has
been advocated for by researchers in the social sciences and environmental design as
there is evidence to show they facilitate independence and are more homelike than
large institutional spaces (Regnier & Denton 2009, Zeisel 2006). “The environment can
25
help to maintain or increase independence and provide the highest quality of life”
(Regnier & Denton 2009, p.169)
Independent living spaces are usually organized as a community and consist of a
residence space, support services and enrichment centers that assist and help develop
the lives of individuals with intellectually, cognitive and physical developmental needs.
The environment is home-like where supervision and guidance in daily actives are
supervised. The community is usually comprised of several clusters of detached homes
in a village like setting, which often includes resident bedrooms rooms/private bath,
desk, storage and sleeping area, house parent bedroom, guest/secondary assistant
house parent, family room, kitchen, games, craft room, laundry facilities, storage and an
outdoor patio/porch. The layout of the community is often controlled and includes
physical property that is maintained by the residence as part of their intellectual and
physical wellbeing. It is common for the communities to include facilities such as a
greenhouses, gardens and workshops. The enrichment centers also function as a
workshop and provide life skills training.
New models focus on increasing privacy, control, choice, independence, autonomy and
freedom. Although they have been primarily centered on housing for older people, aging
individuals with neurological disabilities could benefit greatly from these innovations.
(Regnier & Denton, 2009). The addition of the interventions noted in appendix 1 have
the potential to create focused facilities for A/ASD, facilities that feel like home and
provide comfort for aging in place.
26
Discussion
Determining the correct prescription for the design of shared living environments for
A/ASD is a challenge. The variation and scope of sensory sensitivities, spatial and
visual perception differences A/ASD experience create a plethora of dimensions that
need to be produced and tested to determine exact and appropriate dosages. This
preliminary literature of the correlations has been examined and decoded to inform the
design of built environment and provides designers, architects, housing administrators
and government policies with benchmarks to base their best practices of designing
independent living residences. These benchmarks are basically a skeleton of what
needs to be researchers to create the best environment for A/ASD. Further
development is needed to create optimum prescriptions. Studies that include
observation and analysis of the physical aspects of existing facilities and how they
relate to A/ASD behaviors need to be completed to verify the assumptions compiled in
the literature review and appendix 1. Focus groups meetings need to be conducted with
all stakeholders- A/ASD, their parents, caregivers, facility administrators/developers and
related government agencies to gather broader perspectives on optimum residents for
A/ASD. A triangulated study that includes surveys of stakeholders, state wide would
also be beneficial to the formulation of best practices for this populations’ housing.
27
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