Syllabus Notes 9-6-06
2.1.1 State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things
are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2.1.2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms
including nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium.
2.1.3 State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 2.1.2.
(leave room)
N  protein, and nucleic acids (DNA), makes stuff POLAR.
Ca  bones and muscle contraction
P  used in DNA and RNA
Fe  bonds to oxygen in blood
Na  maintains water balance
2.1.4 Outline the difference between an atom and an ion.
Refer to the roles in both plants and animals. (leave room)
Ions are charged atoms. Atoms make molecules. Ions (because they are
charged, drive ‘movement’ reactions – getting things into or out of the
cell)
9-7-06
2.1.5 Outline the properties of water that are significant
to living organisms including transparency, cohesion,
solvent properties and thermal properties.
• Refer to the polarity of water molecules and
hydrogen bonding where relevant.
Water is a polar molecule (a molecule that acts like it
has a charge). Polar molecules have hydrogen
bonding –molecules attract other polar molecules.
Because of hydrogen bonding:
1. Universal solvent (dissolves charged things)
2. It is cohesive and adhesive, has surface tension,
3. Takes a lot of energy to change the temperature –
high heat of vaporization and specific heat.
4. Expands when it freezes
5. It is transparent
9-11-06
• 2.1.6 Explain the significance to organisms of
water as a coolant, transport medium and
habitat, in terms of its properties.
– Because water is polar and forms hydrogen bonds,
it is an effective coolant: when it evaporates, it takes
a lot of heat-energy from the body.
– Large component of blood
– Lakes and rivers… transparent so that plants can
get sunlight etc…
• Note: Polar molecules love polar/charged
things. NON-polar molecules HATE/repel polar
or charged things
Mini-activity (put the results in your
notes…)
1. Pour a bit of milk into the dish on your lab
table
2. Put 2 drops of food coloring on top of the milk
3. Put 1 drop of soap in the center of the milk.
4. Watch carefully and describe what happens.
5. Draw the initial reaction.
6. Explain the reaction as best as you can in
terms of polar and non-polar. (FYI: one end of
soap is polar and one end is non-polar.)
7. Clean up! Wash your hands!
9-12-06
2.2 Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins (4h)
• 2.2.1 Define Organic
– Compounds containing carbon that are found
in living organisms (except
hydrogencarbonates (CH4 or C2H4),
carbonates and oxides of carbon CO2)) are
regarded as organic.
• 2.2.2 Draw the basic structure of a
generalized amino acid.
9-13-06
2.2.3 Draw the ring structure of glucose and
ribose.
Glucose
Ribose
(6 carbon ring)
(5 carbon ring)
NOTE: Sometimes the ‘c’ for carbon is not
shown… a ‘bend’ in the ring is all you get to imply
carbon…
9-14-06
2.2.4 Draw the structure of glycerol and a
generalized fatty acid.
glycerol
Fatty acid
9-18-06
2.2.5
Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in
the relationships between 2 monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides; fatty acids,
glycerol and glycerides; amino acids, dipeptides
and polypeptides.
Condensation: connects monomers by taking water
out… (dehydration synthesis.) So:
1. connect 2 monosaccharides to make a disaccharide.
Connect more to make a polysaccharide…
2. Connect fatty acids and glycerol to make
triglycerides
3. Connect amino acids to make dipeptides and
polypeptides
Hydrolysis reverses all of the above
9-19-06
2.2.6 Draw the structure of a generalized
dipeptide, showing the peptide linkage.
OH
2.2.7 List two examples for each of
monosaccharides, disaccharides and 1
polysaccharides.
Mono: glucose, fructose, ribose, deoxyribose
Di: maltose, lactose, sucrose (table sugar)
Poly: starch, cellulose, glycogen (animal storage in liver)
9-21-06
2.2.8 State one function of a monosaccharide and one
function of a polysaccharide.
Mono: mainly used as an energy source.
Remember! A mono has 6 or fewer ‘C’ and equal ‘O’!
Glucose is C6H12O6. Polysaccharides are energy storage
(glycogen and starch) or STRUCTURE (cellulose =
wood)
2.2.9
State three functions of lipids.
Hormones (steroids!), cell membranes
(phospholipids), energy storage (triglycerides) ‘fat’.
9-26-06
2.3 Enzymes (new section of topic 2!)
• 2.3.1 Define enzyme and active site.
– They are catalysts. (They speed up reactions that
would normally happen anyway.)
– They do not use energy to work.
– They do not get used up. They do not change
– Substrates are what the enzymes work on.
•
•
•
Lactase works on lactose substrate.
Protease works on protein substrate.
Lipase works on lipid substrate.
– Enzymes bind to their substrate at the active site
9-27-06
• 2.3.2 Explain enzyme–substrate specificity.
– Enzymes are proteins.
– They MAKE or BREAK stuff generally.
– The long chain of amino acids fold into a specific shape.
(FYI: Change one amino acid? Primary, secondary, and
tertiary structure all change… the function could change
too!)
– This 3D shape of the enzyme fits its substrate EXACTLY.
Just like a lock fits only one key. (Lock and key model.)
• 2.3.3 Explain the effects of temperature, pH and
substrate concentration on enzyme activity.
– Each enzyme has an optimal temperature and pH: add
temperature, and the enzyme will speed up until it
DENATURES. Cool and it slows…
– Add substrate, and the reaction increases until all of the
enzymes have full active sites…
1. Illustrate enzyme-substrate reactions.
A) Use cartoons to show anabolic reactions (making
reactions) and catabolic reactions (breaking
reactions.)
2. Similes –in groups of 2, give a simile
of each
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
Enzymes are like:
Active Sites are like:
Temperature affects enzymes like:
pH affects enzymes like:
A substrate is like:
9-28-06
• 2.3.4 Define denaturation.
– Denaturation—a structural change in a protein that
results in a loss (usually permanent) of its biological
properties. (It loses its 3D shape.)
• 2.3.5 Explain the use of pectinase in fruit juice
production, and one other 3 commercial application of
enzymes in biotechnology.
– enzymes in laundry soap (era, tide, clorox 2)
– Pectinase: used to make fruit juice (pectin holds cell
walls together in plants. With pectinase, you get clear
juice and more of it…)
– Meat tenderizer
– Cut DNA to make DNA ‘fingerprints’
– Lactaid is a commercial-product enzyme that turns each
milk disaccharide into two monosaccharides
10-2-06
2.4 DNA structure
2.4.1 Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of
sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate.
Phosphate
Organic
base
sugar
Genetic information is stored by nucleic acids. There
are two kinds DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids are long
chains of nucleotides. The sugar of DNA is C5H10O4
(deoxyribose) and the sugar for RNA is C5H10O5
(ribose)
10-9-06
2.4.2 State the names of the four bases in
DNA.
Thymine (complementary) base pairs with
adenine
Guanine base pairs with cytosine.
In RNA, Uracil is substituted for thymine.
10-10-06
2.4.3 Outline how the DNA nucleotides are
linked together by covalent bonds into a
single strand.
Nucleotides are linked by condensation (dehydration synthesis).
The phosphate of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of another.
This form a ‘phosphate’/’sugar’/’phosphate’/’sugar’/’phosphate’
etc… backbone. The organic bases stick out and are connected
to the deoxyribose (sugar.)
10-11-06
• 2.4.4 Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using
complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds.
I = organic base, II = Deoxyribose (3’ end)
III = phosphate, IV = hydrogen bonds
III
II
I