Group Dynamics and Leadership
Dr Lucia Garcia Lorenzo
9th November 2010
“…group mental life is essential to the full life of the
individual... the satisfaction of this need has to be sought
through membership of a group. Now ... in all [groups] ... the
most prominent feeling ... the group experiences is the
feeling of frustration – a very unpleasant surprise to the
individual who comes seeking gratification.” (Bion, 1961/2010:54)
Lecture Plan
0. What is a group?
1 Group dynamics
1.1. Interdependance: Facilitation and inhibition
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: cohesiveness, socialisation.
1.3. Structure: norms, roles and status
1.4. Theoretical elaboration of groups
2 Who leads the group ? Leadership theories
2.1. The trait approach
2.2. Contingency approach
2.3. Styles of leadership
2.4. Transactional and transformational leadership
2.5. Post-Heroic Leadership
2.6. Culture, gender and leadership
1 What is agroup?
• Interdependence of relationships among members
• Group not static entity but in continuous transformation
• Generates individual, interpersonal and collective process
socio-cognitive processes
• Develops a structure
1 What is a group?
Johnson and Johnson (1987:8):
“‘A group is:
• two or more individuals in (face-to-face) interaction,
• each aware of her membership in the group,
• each aware of the others who belong to the group, and
• each aware of their positive interdependence as they strive to
achieve mutual goals”
Small, (face-to-face), interactive, task-oriented groups, SP
1.1. Interdependence: Facilitation
Effects of the audience
Social Facilitation (Allport, 1920)
People perform better on a task when other people are present (not
competing) – so the mere presence of others can enhance performance
Yet, only in simple tasks: on more complex tasks performance is impaired
by the presence of other people
Drive Theory (Zajonc, 1965): Social facilitation has two dimensions:
• The arousing presence of others
• Effects of task complexity
1.1. Interdependance: Facilitation
Zajonc (1965):
Performance of simple and complex tasks alone and in the presence of
others
300
250
200
150
task performance
100
Hi = worse
performance
50
0
Simple
Alone
Simple
Other
Complex Complex
Alone
Other
1.1. Interdependance: Facilitation
The effects of the audience
•
Evaluation apprehension model. (Cottrell, 1972)
•
Distraction-conflict theory (Baron, 1986)
•
Self-awareness theory (Wicklund, 1975)
•
Etc.
1.1. Interdependance: Facilitation
BUT when tasks need interaction and inter-individual coordination ?
Steiner (1976): Task taxonomy. Three Determinants of Group Performance.
Divisible or unitary:
• E.g., tasks where a division of labour is reasonable (e.g., production
lines) versus those where it is better for everyone to work together
(e.g., tug of war)
Maximising or optimising goal:
• E.g., where the task job requires people to do as much as possible,
(e.g., tug-of-war), or where a particular quantity is to be achieved (e.g.,
pulling a rope maintaining a specified fixed force)
1.1. Interdependance: Facilitation
Steiner (1976)
• How are individual’s efforts related to the total group output ?
• Additive: group output is the sum of individual’s output (e.g., a group of
people picking blackberries)
• Compensatory: group output is the average of the individual outputs
• Disjunctive: when the best individual performance is chosen
suggestion as to which restaurant to dine in)
(e.g., a
• Conjunctive: the group’s performance is a function of the slowest
member (e.g., an assembly line team)
• Discretionary: no task features or social conventions but group free to
decide on its course of action
(e.g shovelling snow together)
• Coordination loss
1.1. Interdependance: Inhibition
Motivation Loss/Social Loafing (Williams, Karau & Bourgeois, 1993):
Less individual effort when working on collective task
Meta analysis of 78 studies SL apparent in 80%
Social Loafing vs. Social Compensation
(Karau and Williams, 1993)
(Zaccaro, 1984)
1. Task nature:
Irrelevant or trivial task SL
Important or possible to add to the partial solutions SC
2. Significance of group to its members:
•
Members of ad hoc groups SL
When participants identify with, value their group membership SC
3. Culture
Individualistic cultures SL
Collectivist cultures SC
(Hofstede, 1980)
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: Cohesiveness
What transforms an aggregation of individuals into a group?
Cohesiveness (esprit de corps, solidarity, team spirit)
Field of forces
•
•
•
•
(Festinger, Schachter and Back, 1950)
Attractiveness of the group and its members
Satisfaction of individual goals
Behaviour
•
Membership continuity
•
adherence to group standards
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: Cohesiveness
FIELD OF FORCES
BEHAVIOUR
Attractiveness
Membership
Continuity
• Of group
• Of group members
Cohesiveness
Mediation of goals:
• Social interaction per se
• Individual goals needing
interdependence
Adherence to
group standards
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: Cohesiveness
Hogg (1993) social identity vs individuals in group aggregation?
Difference between:
•
•
Inter-personal attraction
Social attraction -the 'liking' component of group membership.
Produced by self-categorisation (Turner et al 1987) ppart of the
group processes that includes ethnocentrism, stereotyping, ingroup solidarity etc.
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: Socialisation
Groups are dynamic structures that continuously change
over time.
How groups develop (Tuckman, 1965, Gersick, 1989):
1. Forming
2. Conforming
3. Storming
4. Norming
5. Reforming
6. Performing
7. Adjourning
8. Mourning
1.2. Socio-cognitive processes: Socialisation
Groups as dynamic structures that continuously change over time.
Role
Social
Process
Strategies
Prospective
member
Full
Member
New
member
Marginal
Member
Ex-member
Re-socialisation
Remembrance
Accommodation
Assimilation
Tradition
Reminiscence
Maintenance
Investigation
Socialisation
Role
negotiation
Recruitment
Reconnaissance
Accommodation
Assimilation
Entry
(Moreland and Levine, 1982)
Acceptance
Divergence
Exit
1.3. Structure: norms
1.3. Structure: norms
Shared beliefs about appropriate behaviour for all group members
•
Descriptive (is) and prescriptive (ought)
•
Explicit (norms enforced by law) and implicit (taken-for-granted)
•
Individually: Provide a frame of reference within which individual
behaviour can be located (Sherif, 1936)
•
Group level: Coordinate the actions of group members to accomplish
group goals
•
Provide stability and continuity therefore resistant to change.
•
Standard of group behaviour used in social influence processes.
1.3. Structure: roles
1.3. Structure: Roles
Describe and prescribe behaviour of particular group members
•
Not people but behavioural prescriptions assigned to people
•
Implicit
•
Emerge to facilitate group functioning but inflexibility can be
detrimental.
•
We tend to 'act or assume' roles
•
Influence who we are: identity and self-concept. (Haslam and Reicher,
(group of friends),
explicit
(ICU team)
(Zimbardo and Movahedi, 1975) simulated
prison experiment
2005)
1.3. Structure: Roles (Belbin, 1981)
Roles and descriptions
Allowable weakness
Plant: Creative, imaginative,
unorthodox. Solves difficult
problems.
Ignores details. Too preoccupied to
communicate effectively.
Resource investigator: Extrovert, Overoptimistic. Loses interest once
enthusiast, communicative. Explores initial enthusiasm has passed.
opportunities. Develops contacts
Coordinator: Mature, confident, a
good chairperson. Delegates
Can be seen as manipulative.
Delegates personal work
Shaper: challenging, dynamic,
thrives on pressure. Has the drive
and the courage to overcome
obstacles.
Can provoke others. Hurts people’s
feelings.
ETC.
1.3. Structure: Status
Not all roles are equal
•
Highest status role is the LEADER
•
Properties of higher status roles
•
Commonly agreed prestige
•
Possibility of creativity and innovation adopted by the group. Able
to break and/or extend norms
•
Status hierarchies can develop and vary over time and situation
despite tendency to institutionalisation.
•
Status hierarchies emerge readily in new groups
categorisation theory, 1954)
(Festinger's social
1.4. Theoretical elaboration of groups
Interdependence
(Lewin, 1947)
:
•
More than just sum of members interactions
•
Co-construction of meaning among group members sharing a
particular experience.
•
Group develops structure with positions and shared aims
•
What happens to a member affects the group
•
Goals achieved through members interaction
•
Satisfaction of affiliation, reality management and instrumental needs
•
Through interaction a stable pattern of relationships is established
organizing social relations (norms, status and values)
1.4. Theoretical elaboration of groups
Socio-cognitive processes
•
The group perceives itself/is perceived by others as a totality.
•
Group awareness: 'us', 'group mentality' (Bion)
•
Beyond pertence Group as reference: individual actively engages in
formulating social norms and values that shape thought and action.
•
Creation of endo-groups (positive relationship) and exogroups
(negative relationship).
•
Minimal Group Paradigm, SIT, Social Categorization
1.4. Theoretical
elaboration of groups
Structure
• Regularities that emerge among group members
• Orders and controls conflicts and tensions
• Influences individuals behaviour and members' social positions in
the group
• Regulates interactions, communication, efficiency, roles, status
and norms.
• Roles: Shape expected behaviours and needed tasks for the
group to function
• Status: Provides information regarding members behaviour and
individuals' position in the group
2. Leadership: Does it matter who is in charge?
It Does Matter WHO is in charge
• Social and organizational hierarchies do contain real power
differences: “power over” and “power to”
• The costs of misapplication of power might include:
Injury, Death, financial loss, Stress
• Leadership quality determines the performance of the group
• Poor group performance may therefore potentially be overcome
by changing the leadership
2. Leadership: Does it matter who is in charge?
It Doesn’t Matter WHO is in Charge
• No real power (Chester Barnard, 1938)
• There are few real differences between leaders and followers – so
anyone could be a leader (Mann, 1961)
• It all depends on the context – “contingency theories” (Fiedler,
1964)
• Group performance is largely determined by factors that are
beyond the power of the leader to influence (Pfeffer, 1978)
2.1. Leadership: The trait approach.
The “Great Person” Theory

Effective leadership is based on individual personality
characteristics – in the past, often thought to be innate (“born
leaders”); more recently such qualities assumed to be acquired
•
Popular theory:
•
•
•
it offers ways to measure the strength of leadership qualities and so to
evaluate candidates for leadership positions
it reflects much of our thinking regarding the world – using person
attributions regarding political and historical events (e.g., locating the
causes of the war in Iraq)
2.1. Leadership: The trait approach.
Common Leader Traits
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Drive
Leadership motivation
Honesty and integrity
Self-confidence/self-esteem/dominance
Extraversion
Cognitive ability/intelligence/problem solving
Knowledge of the business
Conservatism
2.1. Leadership: The trait approach.
From ‘great person’ to ‘strong men’
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xRaUqgWPN0&fe
ature=PlayList&p=D83AA0216AD6F393&playnex
t=1&playnext_from=PL&index=1
2.1. Leadership: The trait approach.
Little evidence of there being consistent and specific personality traits
possessed by all leaders
Most of the evidence is from ad hoc groups’ ratings of leadership
Not clear the same kinds of people become leaders in real organisations
Or that they will make good leaders
Evidence from Real World Groups
(Emler, Tarry and Soat; 1998)
Rating qualities of actual leaders in real groups, those who had frequent
contacts with leaders indicated
•
Moral responsibility,
•
Honesty,
•
Extraversion,
•
Self-esteem
as most important
2.2. Leadership: The contingency approaches.
Given relatively few characteristics are common across leaders, focus on
context as a major variable in leadership
Contingency Theory of leadership (Fiedler, 1967):
–
Leadership style develops from a person’s personality, and leads to one of two
styles of leadership:
• Task-focused leadership
• Person-focused leadership
–
Leaders were asked to describe their co-workers on various dimensions, thus
arriving at a description of their “least preferred co-worker” (LPC):
•
•
If LPC described negatively, then leader task focused
If LPC described positively, then leader person focused
2.2. Leadership: The contingency approaches.
The appropriateness of a person-focused or a task-focused leader depends on
the situation:
• leader-group relations (the extent to which the leader has support)
• task structure (well specified or unclear)
• leader’s power (the extent to which they control rewards and punishments)
Over-all:
• Task-focused leadership works better when conditions are very favourable
(positive leader-group relations, clear task, high authority) or very unfavourable
(poor leader-group relations, unclear task, low authority)
• In all other conditions, a person-centred style may get best results
2.2. Leadership: The contingency approaches.
•
•
Fiedler’s view has some empirical support – matching leader
needed to the situation and task also makes intuitive sense
However:
• the view has been controversial (e.g., the assumption that leaders
cannot vary their style of leadership to suit the situation because
style is fixed by personality)
• Static: Fail to capture the 'dance' between leaders and followers
2.3. Leadership: Leadership styles
Lewin, Lippit & White (1939): Assessed styles of leadership over 7 weeks in an afterschool club for 11 year-old boys
Autocratic:
•
•
More aggression, greater dependence on leader, more control.
Worked hardest, but only when leader present
Democratic:
•
•
Friendlier atmosphere, group-centred, reasonably task-oriented.
Leader absence made no difference to work rate
Laissez-faire:
•
•
Leaders faced considerable demands for information. Spent more time
playing than working.
Worked harder when leader absent
2.4. Leadership: Transactional and transformational leaders
Transactional Leaders (Statt, 2004):
• Leadership as a process of exchange
• Task-focused: operate a system of contingent rewards
• Management by exception: no attempt to change subordinates’ working
methods as long as the performance goals are met
•Transformational Leaders (Burns, 1978):
•
•
•
•
Individualised consideration
Intellectual stimulation
Charismatic/inspirational motivation
The aim is to achieve:
• motivation and performance above and beyond the call of duty
• willingly given
• without apparent expectation of additional economic reward
2.5. Leadership: Post-heroic leadership
Bradford and Cohen (1984); (Heifetz and Laurie, 1997):
1990’s/2000’s: associated with transformational leadership but focus on
managers developing their subordinates.
“Manager as developer”:
•
•
•
Shared responsibility with employees
Empowerment of employees: sharing the power around as a “captain of
industry”
Developing constant opportunities to learn – “the learning organisation”
Key factors in development of Post-Heroic Leadership:
•
•
•
Rapidly changing business environment: leadership as ensuring that the
organisation adapts successfully
Discontent with the image of managers (Enron, Northern Rock, etc)
Managers and diversity
2.5. Leadership: Post-heroic leadership
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IrCeVwwu0Xcfeature
=related
2.6. Leadership: Culture and leadership
Cultural differences in both the definition of leadership and in specific leadership
behaviours according with broad differences between collectivist (Eastern Asian)
and individualistic (Western) cultures
Leadership:
• Individualistic cultures: Leader is expected to have vision, authority and be a
decision-maker
• Collectivist cultures: Leader is expected to combine being participative, supportive
and nurturing with being decisive
Leadership roles:
• Individualistic cultures: Leader’s role is largely confined to overseeing the
subordinates’ activities whilst in the workplace
• Collectivist cultures: Leader may have a wider role, being concerned with
subordinates’ private lives and well-being outside the workplace
2.6. Leadership: Gender and leadership
Gender differences regarding leadership tendencies, and their assessed
effectiveness
Eagly, Karu,Makhijani (1995): group behaviour in informal groups
•Females: tend to be more democratic, person-focused leaders
•Males : tend to be more autocratic, task-focused leaders
Meta-analysis re. Effectiveness
Overall – no difference in evidence regarding perceived effectiveness
But differences re. of gender-stereotyped appropriateness of role:
Men more effective when role defined in task terms
Women more when defined in interpersonal ability terms
•Different effects of organisational level:
•
Men are more effective in first-level (line-management) positions
Women more effective in 2nd level (middle-management) positions
2.7. Current trends on leadership research
• More holistic view of leadership e.g. including followers, the context, the
levels, dynamics etc
• Examining how the 'process' of leadership actually takes place (e.g. how
the leader and followers process information and how they affect each other, the
group and organization in doing so)
• Deriving alternatives to examine leadership (e.g. mixed methods of research)
• Some further/unresolved questions:
• Are leaders born or made?
• How do followers affect successful leaders?
• Why some charismatic leaders generate and others destroy?
• What is the impact of technology in leadership?
Some further references
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