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The leader
(trait, style, behavior,
vision, charisma)
The led (follower)
(motivations, readiness,
attitudes)
The task
(from holistic to
reductionism,
needing discretion or
direction)
The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)
1
Subjective Perspectives

Subjective perspectives, focusing on the
individual rather than the organization,
view leadership as motivating
individuals and helping individuals
construct meanings with a purpose to
synchronize the goals of individuals and
the organization.
2
The Human Resource Perspective on
Organization



Organizations and people need each other.
Organizations need ideas, energy, and talent; people
need careers, salaries, and work opportunities.
When the fit between the individual and the
organization is poor, one or both will suffer:
individuals will be exploited, or will seek to exploit the
organization, or both.
A good fit between individual and organization
benefits both: human beings find meaningful and
satisfying work, and organizations get the human
talent and energy that they need.
3
What can leaders do? [Bolman and Deal
(2003), Reframing organizations.]
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Build and implement an HR philosophy
Hire the right people
Keep employees
Invest in employees
Empower employees
Promote diversity
Implement Theory Z (1991)
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Theory Z (Ouchi, 1981, p. 165)

“Theory Z assumes that any worker’s life is a
whole….Theory Z suggests that humanized
working conditions not only increase
productivity and profits to the company but
also the self-esteem for employees….Up to
now American managers have assumed that
technology makes for increased productivity.
What Theory Z calls for instead is a
redirection of attention to human relations in
the corporate world.”
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Greenfield Critique of the Theory
Movement: Substance




First, administrative science does not work as science; it has not
brought us increased understanding and control of
organization…
Second, administrative science has ignored power relationships
and has been content to deal with administrative problems that
ignore substantive problems in education.
Third, administrative science has focused its efforts not upon
the phenomenological realities of administration---upon the
experience of wielding power and making decisions—but upon
the organization…
Finally, administrative science has devalued the study of human
choice and rationality. (pp. 152-153) [italics added]
6
Greenfield Critique of the Theory
Movement: Citations



Greenfield, T. B. (1973). Organizations as
social interventions. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 9(5), 552-574.
1974 Speech to the International
Intervisitation Programme
Greenfield, T. B. (1979). Research in
educational administration in the United
States and Canada: An overview and critique.
Educational Administration, 8(1), 207-245.
7
A Comparison of Three Content Theories
of Motivation
FACTOR THEORY (by Herzberg)
Motivators________
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Advancement
Growth
Hygiene Factors_______
Company policy and administration
Supervision
Relations with supervisors,
peers, and subordinates
Work conditions
Salary
Personal life
Status
Security
HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS (by
Maslow)
ERG THEORY
(by Alderfer)
Self-actualization
Esteem____________
Growth
________________
Social
Relatedness
__________________
Safety
Physiological
________________
Existence
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Vroom’s expectancy model
Source: Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
Instrumentality
Valence
Motivation
Expectancy
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The Porter-Lawler model of motivation
Source: Porter. I. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance
(p. 165). Copyright 1968 by Richard. D. Irwin.
1
Abilities
And
Traits
Value
reward
8
4
Perceived
Equitable
Rewards
7a
3
6
Effort
Intrinsic
Rewards
Performance
7b
2
Perceived
Effort-Reward
Probability
5
9
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
Rewards
Role
Perceptions
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An Overview of Research
There is a large body of literature on
treatment of employees and its effect.
 According to Razik and Swanson’s (1995)
summary, the research falls into four major
categories (human motivation, human nature,
morale, informal organization).
 Various methods have been
used in this body of research.

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Taxonomy of the work on human relations
(a. Human Motivation)
Expectancy


Expectations
Rewards
Behaviorist


Reinforces
Reinforcement
Social Learning


Modeling
Self-Control
Common Needs





Influence Expectancy Beliefs
Timely and Sound Rewards
Behavior Models
Existence of Variable Needs
Opportunities for Needs Satisfaction
Job Enrichment
Develop Collectivity Identity
Maslow
Porter
McClelland
Alderter
Ardrey
Work Motivation


Herzberg’s Two-factor
Shamir’s Collectivity
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Taxonomy of the work on human relations
(b. Morale)
Quality of Work-life






Work Conditions
Opportunities for Growth
A Sense of Belonging
Worker’s Rights
Work and Life Span
Social Relevance
Factors Affecting Morale






Organization
Individual Life
Nature of Work
Leadership
Self-concept
Need Satisfactions
A Sensitivity of Employee
Morale Status
Quality of Work-life
Job Rotation
Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment
Socio-technical
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Taxonomy of the work on human relations
(c. Informal Organization)
Functions



Social Interaction
Social Control
Communication
Leaders


Emergence
Functions
Disadvantages




Transmit False information
Resist Changes
Excessive Conformity
Conflict Goals
The Inevitable of Informal
Organization
Integration of interests
Beware of the Interrelationship
between Formal and Informal
Organizations
Benefits



Stability
Enhance Social Contacts
Emotional valve
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Taxonomy of the work on human relations
(d. Human Nature)
McGregor’s Theory Y (High Expectation)




Social-emotional Climate
Feedback
Input-Related Factors
Output-Related Factors Supportive Climate
More Feedback
Training
Growth
Achievement
Opportunities to Tackle Challenges
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Reflections on Perspectives on Subjective Perspectives


In your judgment, what are the advantages of
subjective perspectives on leadership? What are
the difficulties that might arise if you try to put into
practice the ideas associated with subjective
perspectives on leadership?
How do you integrate subjective perspectives with
other perspectives such as personality, formal,
democratic, and political perspectives?
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