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Land Use
Human Nutritional requirements
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Males- 2500 calories; Females-________calories
Balanced intake of ________, carbohydrates and proteins.
Protein produces 4 calories of energy per gram and should make ________of all calories
Carbohydrates also produce 4 calories of energy per gram and should make up 60% of all calories
Fats produce 9 calories of energy per gram and should make up ________ of all calories
Only about ________ species of plants are commercially grown to meet human needs
Of these ________________________supply over half of the human caloric intake
________species of animal protein supply over ________ of the worlds needs.
It takes about ________pounds of grain to produce 1 pounds of meat
________of the worlds richest countries consume 80% of the worlds mean production
________of grain grown in the US is for ________________
By consuming grain directly instead of consuming the animals that feed upon it there would be a 20-fold
increase in the amount of calories available and an 8-fold increase in the amount of protein available.
In terms of famine and malnutrition, ________________children die each year from starvation and 850
million people are considered malnourished.
Chronic undernourishment and vitamin/mineral deficiencies result in; stunted growth, weakness and
increased susceptibility to illness.
Types of Agriculture
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Agroforestry: harvestable ________________________are drown among or around crops or on pastureland
as a means of preserving or enhancing the productivity of the land
________________________: planting crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side. Increases
biodiversity, reduces surface runoff and erosion, improves uptake of nutrients, modifies the microclimate
for improved crop production, improves wildlife habitat.
Crop Rotation: Planting a field with different crops from year to year to reduce soil nutrient depletion.
Example: rotation corn or cotton which removes large amounts of ________________ from the soil, with
soybeans that replenish the nitrogen
High-Input Agriculture: use of ________________________________, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
Industrial Agriculture or Corporate Farming: characterized by mechanization, monocultures and use of
synthetic inputs such as chemical fertilizers and ________________. Emphasis on productivity and
________________________.
Intercropping: to grow more than one crop in the ________________, especially in alternating rows or
sections
Interplanting: growing ________ different crops in the same area at the same time. To interplant
successfully, plants should have similar nutrient and moisture requirements
Low-input: Depends on hand tools and natural fertilizers; lacks large scale________.
Low-till, No-till or Conservation-till: Soil is disturbed little or not at all to ________________. Has lower
labor costs, reduces the need for fertilizer and saves ________________.
Monoculture: the cultivation of a ________________
Polyculture: planting a plot of land with several varieties of the ________ crop
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Tillage: Conventional method in which the surface is plowed which then breaks up and exposes the soil. This
is then followed by smoothing the surface and planting. This method exposes the land to water and wind
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________________: relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control and mechanical
cultivation to maintain soil productivity an control pests. This practice excludes or strictly limits the use of
synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. Doesn’t use plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives and GMOs
Plantation: a commercial tropical agriculture system that is essentially________________oriented. Involves
the deliberate introduction and cultivation of economically desirable species of tropical plants at the
expense of widespread replacement of the original ________________. Practices include; modifications or
disturbance of the natural landscape through permanent removal or natural vegetation, changes in drainage
channels, application of chemicals to the soil etc.
Polyculture: Planting ________________ crops in the same place, in imitation of the diversity of natural
ecosystems. Avoids large stands of a single crop (monoculture). Includes; crop rotation, multicropping,
intercropping and alley cropping. Often requires more labor but has several advantages over monoculture.
The diversity of crops avoids the susceptibility of monocultures to disease. The greater variety of crops
provides habitat for more species, increasing local biodiversity.
Green Revolution
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Occurred between ________________________
Involved planting monocultures, using high applications of inorganic fertilizers an pesticides and the
widespread use of artificial irrigation systems.
Crop acreage increased by ________but crop yield increased by ________it then reached a plateau since it
was easer and more economical to increase production through different farming techniques than to buy
more land
The 2nd green revolution began in the ________ and continues today
It involves ________________ that produce the most yield per acer.
In its contrast with past agriculture practices in which famers panted a variety of locally adapted plant
strains.
Example: of all the wheat grown in the US today, ________comes from ________ different genotypes
Criticisms of the Green Revolution
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Increasing food production in not synonymous with increasing food security (famines are not can use by
decreases in food supply buy by socioeconomic dynamic and a failure ________________________)
Produces monoculture of ________________, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polyculture
There has been a drop in productivity due to desertification and other forms of land degradation
Necessary purchase of ________ led to widespread establishment of rural credit institutions that cause
smaller farmers to go into debt and in many cases resulted in the loss of their land.
Increased use of pesticides, necessary to limit the high levels of ________ damage that happen in
monoculture
Salinization, ________________, and lowering of water levels in certain areas increase as consequences of
increased irrigation
Reduced agricultural biodiversity, as it relied upon only a few ________________varieties of each crop. This
led to the susceptibility of the food supply to pathogens that can be controlled by agrochemicals as well as
the permanent loss of many valuable ________________bread into traditional varieties over thousands of
years.
Genetic Engineering and Crop Production
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Genetic engineering involves moving genes from one species to another or designing gene sequences with
desirable characteristics
These include; pest, ________________, mold and saline resistance, higher protein yields and higher
vitamin content
________________________of all crops grown, derive from genetically engineered or transgenic crop
species.
PROS: require less water and fertilizers, higher crop yields, ________________, faster growth which may
mean greater productivity, resulting in lower operating costs, more resistant to disease, drought, frost and
insects, may be able to grow in saltier soils.
CONS: unknown ecological effects, ________________________, may harm beneficial insects, may pose
allergen risk, may result in mutations with unknown consequences, may cause pesticide resistant strains
Case Study: Golden Rice
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Golden Rice is produced by splicing three foreign ________________, two from the daffodil and one from
bacterium, into a variety of rice that supplies vitamin A to populations that frequently suffer from ________
deficiency.
Irrigation
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________of all freshwater is used on crops
Worldwide, about 4________of all crop yields come from ________of all cropland that is irrigated.
Use of irrigation depends on the climate and the degree of industrialization
Ex: Canada irrigates ________of its crops, India irrigates ________of its crops.
With inefficiencies (________________________) up to 70% of irrigation water is lost
A drip irrigation would solve these problems but would be expensive to install and is only used ________of
crops world wide.
Increases in population are outpacing the rate of land that is being irrigated.
Sustainable irrigation is limited because of costs, depletion of water sources, competition for water by urban
areas, waterlogging and salinization.
Sustainable Agriculture
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3 goals: environmental health, economic profitability and social and economic equity
Specific strategies must take into account; ________________, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local
availability of inputs and grower’s goals.
Costs of Agriculture; ________________, groundwater contamination, decline of ________________,
continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, costs in production and
disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities.
Sustainable Agriculture- Efficient Use of Inputs
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Sustainable farmers maximize reliance on natural________________farm inputs with the goal to develop
efficient, biological systems that don’t need high levels of material inputs.
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Approaches are those that are least ________________and most energy efficient and yet maintain
productivity ________________________.
Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be used before chemicals
Sustainable Agriculture- ________________________, Species and Variety
Preventive strategies, when adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish sustainable production
systems
When possible________________crops should be selected that are tolerant of existing soil or site condition
When site selection is an option factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history and location
should be looked at before planting
Sustainable Agriculture- Soil Management
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Systems that impair soil quality resulting in greater inputs of ________, nutrients, pesticides and/or energy
for tillage to maintain yields
The soil is viewed as ________________ and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure
its long-term productivity and stability
Methods to protect and ________________; use cover crops, compost, manures, reducing tillage,
maintaining soil cover with plants or mulches, regular additions of ________________________.
Sustainable Agriculture- Species Diversity
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By growing a variety of crops- farmers spread out the ________________________and are less susceptible
to radical price fluctuations associated with supply and ________________.
Cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the________________________by holding soil and nutrients in
place, conserving soil moisture with dead mulches and increasing the water infiltration rate and waterholding capacity.
Sustainable Agriculture- Species Diversity
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To increase diversity crops and livestock can be integrated in the same farming operation
Growing row crops on more level land and pasture on ________________ slopes will reduce soil erosion
Planting pasture and forage crops in rotation enhances soil quality and reduces erosion
Livestock manure can contribute to ________________________
Livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that in plantonly systems would be considered ________________.
Feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems.
Types of Pesticides
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Biological: living organisms are used to control ________________. Examples include; bacteria, ladybugs, milky
spore disease, parasitic wasps and certain viruses
Case Study
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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil-dwelling bacterium that also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of
various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on________________surfaces of plants
Proteins produced by Bt are uses as specific insecticides
It works by secreting one or more toxins after being ingested by an insect
The toxins are often specific to a family of insects and because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded
as ________________________________________________
Disadvantages:
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Constant exposure to a toxin can create evolutionary pressures for pests ________________to that toxin
Advantages:
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The level of toxin can be very high, thus delivering sufficient dosage to the pest
It is contained within the plant system therefore only those insects that feed on the crop perish
It replaces the use of ________________ pesticides in the environment
Types of Pesticides
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Carbamates: also known as urethanes, affect the ________________________of pests. 100 grams of a
carbamate has the same effect as ________________of a chlorinated hydrocarbon (DDT). They are more water
soluble which brings a greater risk of them being dissolved in ________________and getting into the
groundwater.
Case Study
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Potato growers on eastern Long Island, NY used Aldicarb (carbamate) from 1975-1979 to control the Colorado
potato beetle and the golden nematode.
In 1979 the residues were detected in ________________- they found that more that 2,000 wells were in excess
of NY health standards
Studies in 1983 and 1984 showed contamination had increased in areas with a deep water table
________________________wells are still contaminated today
Aldocarb is highly ________________________and is persistent in the environment
Since the contamination of NY wells were first reported, 26 other states reported contamination as well.
Types of Pesticides
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Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: synthetic organic compounds that affect the nervous system of pests. They are
highly resistant to decomposition and can remain in the ecosystem for up ________________. During 1950s,
DDT was linked with the thinning of eggshells in certain species of birds such as the Bald Eagle
Fumigants: used to ________________________and prevent pest infestation of stored grain
Inorganic: ________________________pesticides. Includes arsenic, copper, lead, and mercury. Highly toxic
and accumulate in the environment.
Organic or Natural: Natural poisons derived from plants such ________________or chrysanthemum
Organophosphates: Extremely toxic but remain in the environment for only a brief time. Examples include
malathion to control mosquitoes and ________________________
Pros and Cons of Pesticide Use
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PROS: kills disease carrying pests, increases food supply, more food means food is
________________________, newer pesticides are safer and more specific, reduces labor costs and makes
agriculture more profitable
CONS: Accumulate in food chains, pests develop resistance and create a pesticide treadmill,
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________________, runoff and its effect on aquatic environments through biomagnification, inefficiencyonly 5% of a pesticide reaches the intended pest, threatens endangered species and pollinators, and human
health
Integrated Pest Management-IPM
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Is an ecological pest control strategy that uses a variety of methods
When these methods are used in combination they can reduce or eliminate the use of traditional pesticides
The aim of IPM is not to________________pests but to control their numbers to a ________________
Chemical pesticides are a ________________________
Employs a biological, physical and chemical aspect.
o Polyculture
o ________
o Planting pest-repellent crops
o Using mulch to control weeds
o Using pyrethroids or naturally occurring microorganism instead of toxic pesticides
o Natural insect predators
o Rotating crops often to disrupt insect cycles
o Using pheromones or hormone interrupters
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o Developing genetically modified crops that are more insect resistant
o Regular monitoring through visual inspection and traps followed by record keeping
o Construction of mechanical controls such as ________, tillage, insect barriers or agricultural
vacuums equipped with lights
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Control Act (FIFRA) (1947): Regulates the manufacture and use
of pesticides. Pesticides must be registered and approved. Labels require directions for ________________
Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act (1972): Requires r________of all pesticides in US commerce.
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) (1996): Emphasizes the protection of infants and children in reference to
pesticide residue in food
Forestry
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Forestry involves management, planting of new trees, and sometimes fires
Ecological Services of Forests:
o Providing wildlife habitat
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o Affecting local climate patterns
o Purifying________________________________
o Reducing soil erosion as they serve as a watershed, absorbing and releasing controlled amounts of water
o Providing energy and nutrient cycling
Tree Plantations
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Large, managed commercial or government owned farms with uniformly aged trees of some species
(________________________)
They may not be native to the area and may be hybrids (genetically modified)
The main use is for pulp or lumber
Pine, spruce and eucalyptus are widely used due to their fast growth rates
Trees are harvested by ________________
Short rotation cycles (25-30 years or 6-10 years in tropics) are economically important factors
5% of the worlds trees are grown in plantations but make up ________of the timber used
63% are grown in the worlds secondary-growth forests and ________are old-growth forests
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Annually, tropical tree plantations yield much more wood (25 m/hectare) than traditional forests (1-3
m/hectare)
Tree plantations don’t support ________________found in old-growth forests and they contain little
biodiversity. Decaying wood is absent which provides a vital link in an old-growth forest
Conversion to tree plantation may result in draining ________________and replacing traditional hardwoods
Newer techniques allow leaving blocks of ________________in the plantation
The Kyoto Protocol encourages use of tree plantations to reduce CO2 levels although carbon dioxide may
eventually re-enter the atmosphere after ________________.
PROS: Practical methods for trees that require full or moderate sunlight in order to grow, efficient and
economical methods. Genetically improved species of trees that ________________and grow faster.
Increases economic returns on investments. Produces ________________of timber at low costs and
provides jobs
CONS: Reduces recreation value of land, if planted on steeply sloped areas, will cause soil erosion, water
pollution and flooding, reduces biodiversity, Promotes ________________ and tree plantations that are
prone to disease or infestation through lack of diversity.
Old-Growth Forests
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Not been seriously impacted by human activities for hundreds of years. They are rich in biodiversity. Depletion
of old-growth forests increase the risk of climate change. Many old-growth forests contain species of trees with
high ________________________ value but require a long time to mature
Characterized by:
o Older and mixed-aged trees
o Minimal signs of ________________________
o Multilayered canopy openings due to tree fall
o Healthy ________________________________
o Pit-and-mount topography due to tree falling and creating new microenvironments by recycling carbonrich organic material directly into the soil and providing substrate for mosses, fungi and seedlings
o Decaying wood and ground level layer that provides a rich carbon sink
o ________________________________
o Dead trees (________) that are necessary nesting sites for woodpeckers and spotted owls
o A fungal ecosystem
Forest Fires
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Current forest fire frequency in the US is ________ the average for 1970-1986. Totally area burned is
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The US forest service has lengthened the wildfire season by ________________
The change in wildfire frequency appears to be linked to annual spring and summer temps. Longer, warmer
summers have increased forest fires.
Earlier springs lead to earlier snow melt and increased dry season
As forests burn they release CO2 into the atmosphere, compounding problems of global warming
Another reason for the increase in forest fires is a change in fire management philosophy
Any naturally started fire on federal land that is not threatening resources is ________________
Types of Forest Fire
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Crown Fires: occur in forests that have not had surface fires in a long time. Extremely hot. Burn entire trees
and leap from tree top to tree top. Kills wildlife, ________________________and destroys structures
Ground Fires: ________________________and burn partially decayed leaves. Common in peat bogs.
Difficult to detect and extinguish
Surface Fires: burns undergrowth and leaf litter. ________________________and small trees. Spares older
trees and allows many wild animals to escape. Advantages: burns away flammable ground litter, reducing
larger fires later, releases minerals back into soil profile. ________________for some species with
serotinous cones (require heat to open and release seeds, such as giant sequoia and jack pint), helps keep
pathogens and insects in check and allows vegetation to grow in clearings that provides food for deer,
moose, elk, muskrat and quail
Methods to Control Fires
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Prevention: ________________________, closing parts of the forest during times of the year when the
number of visitors in high and during period of drought, and education
Prescribed burning: ________________setting controlled surface fires and setting small, prescribed fires to
thin out underbrush in high-risk areas. It requires careful planning and monitoring.
Other strategies include allowing fires to burn themselves out and creating large clear areas around
structures
Management and harvesting
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Even-aged management- essentially the practice of ________________Uneven-aged managementmaintain a stand with trees of all ages from seedling to mature
________________________- specific trees in an area are chosen and cut
High grading- cutting and removing only the largest and ________________
Shelterwood cutting- removes all ________________within a limited time
Seed Tree cutting- Majority of trees are removed except for scattered, ________________trees used to
regenerate a new stand
________________________: all of the trees in an area are cut at the same time. This technique is
sometimes used to cultivates shade-intolerant trees
Strip cutting- clear cutting a ________ of trees that follows the land contour. The corridor is allowed to
regenerate
Deforestation
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Conversion of forested areas to nonforested areas (used for livestock grazing, grain field, mining, urban
sprawl etc)
Natural deforestation can be from ________________, flooding, forest fire, volcanoes etc
Can result in degraded environments with reduced biodiversity and reduced ecological services. Can
threaten species with ________________, reduces habitats, decreased soil fertility and allows runoff into
aquatic ecosystems
Can cause changed in local climate patterns and increase the amount of ________ released into the air from
burning and tree decay.
Indirect effects caused by edge effects and ________________________can occur
Alters the water cycle potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil or groundwater.
This then affects the recharge of ________________ and the moisture in the atmosphere.
Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape’s capacity to intercept, retain and ________________.
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Lack of trees can increase runoff leading to ________________________or more extreme floods.
Contributes to decreased evapotranspiration. This lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levelsthis affects areas downwind from the forest as well
Forest can extract ________ and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and
reducing the greenhouse effect.
Forests are also a valued ________ attraction
Deforestation- Schools for thought
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Impoverished school: believes the major cause for deforestation is the growing number of poor people
Neoclassical school: believes the major cause is “________________________________:
Political-ecology: school thinks the major cause is entrepreneurs.
Case Study
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The Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest centered on how deforestation affects ________________
The forest consisted of several watersheds each drained by a single creek Impervious bedrock was close to the
surface which prevented seepage of water from one forested hillside, ally and creek ecosystem to another
Conclusions:
o In a mature forest, nutrients coming into the forest are balanced by nutrients leaving the forest
o Inflow and outflow of nutrients was low compared with levels being ________________
o After deforestation occurred, water ________________, consequently soil erosion increased which
caused a large increase in the outflow of nutrients. Increases in outflow of nutrients caused water
pollution
o Nutrient loss could be reduced by clearing trees and vegetation in ________________. Remaining
vegetation reduced soil erosion
Forest Management
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Forests cover about ________of all land surface- ________ of these are closed canopies (tree crowns covering
more than 20% of the ground) and 20% are open canopy (tree crowns covering less than 20% of the ground)
70% are located in N. America, the Russian Federation and S. America
The US is the largest area of timbering in the Pacific Northwest employing ________people- a $7 billion per year
industry
Forest account ________of the land in the US, ________are nonfederal lands
The Forest Service consists of 155 national forests, 22 grasslands and was established in 1905
o manages public lands in natural forests and grasslands (193 million acres)
o protects and manages natural resources on ________________________________.
o Provides community assistance and cooperation with state and local governments, forest industries and
private landowners to protect and manage nonfederal forests, rangelands and watersheds
o Provides international assistance in formulating ________ and US support for the protection and
management of the worlds resources
 Forest Reserve Act (1891): Gave the president authority to establish forest reservations from public domain
lands
 Wilderness Act (1964): Created the legal definition ________________________in the US. Currently 4
agencies in charge of more than 106 million acers of federal wilderness (National Park Service, US Forest
Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Management)
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Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968): Preserves and protects certain ________ with outstanding natural ,
cultural and recreational values in a free-flowing condition for the enjoyment of present and future
generations. Classifies rivers as wild, scenic or recreational
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ (1960, 1968): Directs the US Secretary of
Agriculture to manage national forests for recreation, wildlife habitats and timber production through
principles of multiple use and sustained yield.
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA) (1976): Along with the Taylor Grazing Act, outlines
policy concerning the use and ________________________of public lands in the US. Grants federal
government jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands. Grants Bureau of Land Management
responsibility to manage all public lands not within national forests or
parks________________________policy
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (FRRRPA) (1976): Also known as the Notional
Forest Management Act. Requires the secretary of agriculture to develop a management program for
national forest lands based on multiple use and sustained yield principals Also addresses
________________________rates, methods and locations
________________________________________________Act (1976): Authorized the creation and use of a
special fund in situations involving salvage of insect-infested, dead, damaged or drowned timber and to
remove associated trees for stand improvement
Healthy Forest Initiative (2003): Allows timber companies to cut down
________________________valuable trees in most national forests for 10 years. Timber companies in
return must clear out small, more fire-prone trees and underbrush. Law may have consequences of
increasing fires by accumulation of slash and increasing fire-prone ________________ trees.
Rangelands
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Are being compromised by overgrazing and d________________________. The federal government is trying to
manage and sustain the rangelands
Overgrazing
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Occurs when plants are exposed to grazing for too long without sufficient recovery periods
When a plant is grazed severely it uses stored energy in its roots to support r________________
As this energy is used, the ________________________
The degree to which the roots die back depends on the severity of the grazing.
Rood dieback does add organic matter to the soil which increases soil porosity, the infiltration rate of water and
the soil’s moisture holding capacity.
If sufficient time has passed, enough leaves will regrow and the roots will regrow as well.
A plant is considered over grazed with it is ________________ before the roots recover.
Overgrazing can reduce root growth by up to ________________
Consequences:
– Pastures becoming ________________________________
– Soils having less organic matter and becoming less fertile
– Decrease in ________________________
– The infiltration rate and moisture holding capacity of the soil drops
– Susceptibility to soil compaction increased
– Desirable plants become stressed while weedier species thrice in these harsher conditions
– Biodiversity decreases by reducing native vegetation- ________________
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________________are affected by cattle destroying banks and streambeds
________________ increased due to cattle wastes
Increases disease in native plants
Land is affected to the point that sustainability is threatened
Desertification
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Conversion of marginal rangeland or cropland to a more desert type of land
Caused by: overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought or climate changes as well as the overuse of
resources such as ________________ and water
overgrazing results in animals eating all available plant life 2. ________________away trampled soil since
there isn’t anything to hold the soil down 3. wells, springs and other sources of water dry up. 4. what
vegetation is left dies from drought or is taken for firewood 5. ________________ that are unsuitable for
grazing may begin to take over 6. the ground becomes unsuitable for seed germination 7. wind and dry heat
blow away the ________________l.
Federal Rangeland Management
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Comprise ________ of the landmass in the US and are the dominate type of land in arid and semiarid regions
________ of lands in the western US are classified as rangelands
Serve purposes like:
o A habitat for a wide array of game and ________
o A habitat for a diverse and wide array of ________
o A source of high-quality water, clean air and open spaces
o A setting for recreational hiking, camping, fishing hunting and nature experiences
o The foundation for low-input fully ________ food production systems for the cattle industry.
Jurisdiction of public grazing rangeland is coordinated through the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM)
Before 1995, grazing policies were determined by rancher advisory boards composed of permit holders
After 1995, resource advisory councils were formed made up of diverse groups representing different
viewpoints and interests
40% of all federal grazing permits are owned ________ (about 2000) of all livestock operators.
Federal grazing permits average about ________a day per animal. Though the true cost of doing business would
be about ________per day per animal
Methods of Rangeland Management
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Rangelands
Controlling the number and distribution of livestock so that carrying capacity is not exceeded
Restoring degraded rangeland
Moving livestock from one area to another to allow for rangeland to recover
Fencing off ________________ (stream) areas to reduce damage
Suppressing the growth of invasive plants
Replanting barren ________________ with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion
Providing supplemental feed at selected sites
Locating water holes, ________________and salt blocks at strategic points that do not degrade the
environment.
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Land administered by the BLM is inhabited by ________ endangered species of wildlife
Livestock grazing is the ________ rated threat to endangered plant species, ________leading threat for all
endangered wildlife and the number one threat to all endangered species in arid regions of the US
Relevant Laws
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Taylor Grazing Act (1934): Requires ________on federal land
Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA) (1974): Mandates periodic ________________ of forests and
rangelands in the US. Directs that the assessment be conducted by the US forest Service and consider a
broad range of renewable resources, including outdoor recreation, fish, wildlife, water, ranges, timber and
minerals
Public Rangelands Improvement Act (1978): Established a reaffirming a commitment to manage, maintain
and improve rangelands so that they become as productive as feasible.
Urban Land Development
Planned Development
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There are more than ________________residential and about 5 million commercial building in the US
Together these buildings use 1/3 of all energy and ________of all electricity consumed in the US
Energy needs of buildings account for almost half of the sulfur dioxide emissions, ¼ of the nitrous oxide
emissions and 1/3 of all ________________emissions
Green building and city characteristic focus on whole-system approaches:
o Energy conservation through government and private industry rebates and tax incentives for solar and
other less-polling forms of energy
o Resource-efficient building techniques and materials
o ________________________________
o Water conservation through the use of xeriscaping
o Designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycled materials
o Placing buildings near public transportation hubs that use a multitude of venue (subway, bus, etc)
o Creating environments that are ________________ friendly by incorporating parks, greenbelts and
shopping areas in accessible areas
o Preserving historical and cultural aspects while blending a natural feeling and ________________ of a
community
Suburban Sprawl and Urbanization
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Urbanization refers to the movement of people fro ________________to cities and the changes that
accompany it.
Areas that are experiencing the greatest growth in urbanization are countries in Asia and Africa
Asia alone has close to ½ of the worlds urban inhabitants even though ________ of its population live in
rural areas
Africa, which is generally considered overwhelming rural, now has a larger urban population than N America
Reasons include: ________________________, higher standards of living, easier access to healthcare,
mechanization of agriculture, ________________________
Nations with the most rapid increases in their urbanization rates are generally those with the most rapid
________________________________
From 1950-1990- the world’s economy increased ________________________
Urbanization Pros
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Uses ________________- less impact on the environment
Better ________________ delivery system
________________________________systems decrease reliance on fossil fuels– commuting distances are
shorter
Better ________________
Recycling systems are more efficient
Large numbers of people generate high tax revenues
Urban areas attract industry due to availability of raw materials, distribution networks, customers and labor
pool
Much of the pollution come from ________________________, enabling focused remediation techniques.
Urbanization Cons
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Impact on land is more c________________ and more pronounced (runoff and flooding)
Overcrowded ________________
Commuting times are longer because infrastructure can’t keep up with growth
Sanitation systems have grater volumes of ________________ to deal with
Solid-waste buildup is more pronounced. ________ space becomes scarce and ________________
Large number of poor people place strains on social services (wealthier people move to suburbs)
Higher population densities increase ________________. Population increase may be high than job growth
Since population densities are high, pollution levels are also high (urban heat islands, ozone levels, water
and soil pollution)
Transportation Infrastructure
Federal Highway System
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About ________________miles important to nation’s economy, defense and mobility
Although they receive substantial federal funding and comply with federal standards, they are owned, built
and maintained by the states
The system serves all major US cities. Unlike counterparts in most industrialized countries, interstates go
through downtown areas and ________________________________________________.
The distribution of virtually all goods and services involve interstate highways at some point
Residents of American cities commonly use urban ________________ to travel to their jobs.
An efficient and well-maintained federal highway system can have the following impacts:
________________________________vehicles in stop and go traffic emit far more pollutants than they do
without frequent braking and acceleration
Reducing Greenhouse Gases: improving ________________and reducing congestion will decrease
atmospheric carbon dioxide
Improve Fuel Economy and Reduce foreign oil dependence: When vehicles are stuck in traffic, fuel economy
goes down- modest improvements to the nation’s worse traffic bottlenecks would save 1 billion gallons of
fuel each year
Improve the Economy: Interstates ________________in economic productivity for every $1 invested
Improve Quality of Life: allows produces to be distributed through out the country in a short period of time.
Federal Aid Highway Act (1956): Authorized construction of the Interstate Highway System. Under the new
law, the federal government agreed to ________________of the construction costs for interstates. States, in
turn, would provide the remaining funds, administer the construction projects and operate the completed
interstate highway.
Canals and Channels
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The term canal is another word for strait, which is defined as a narrow body of water that connect two
larger bodies of water.
Occur naturally or can be ________________________
Repeated ________________ of canals and channels is often necessary because of silting
In the US, channels frequented by ships are generally maintained by the US department of Interior and
monitored and policed by the US Coast Guard.
Panama Canal- ________________canal connects Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean. It allows water
transport without having to circumnavigate South America
Suez Canal- 163-mile canal that connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean It allows water transport
between Europe and Asia without traveling around Africa- ________ of the world’s shipping runs through
here.
Roadless Areas and Ecosystem Impacts
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No roads= ________________________________
Havens for fish and wildlife whose habitats in many other forest areas have been fragmented or entirely
destroyed
They provide habitats for more that ________________________, endangered or sensitive species and
include watersheds that supply clean drinking water
Roadless rule protects 60 million acers or ________ of National Forest Lands – ________ of the total land in
the US
Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2001): This rule places about 1/3 of the national forest system’s total
acreage off-limits to virtually all road building and logging.
More than________of the national forest land is already open to such activity
The plan protects ________acres of unspoiled national forest land in 39 states.
It preserves all current opportunities for public access and recreation, including hiking, fishing, hunting,
camping and mountain biking, as well as the revenue and ________that these activities generate in local
areas.
Public and Federal Lands- Management
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The BLM is responsible for managing 262 million acres of land, about ________of the land in the US.
BLM also manages about ________________additional acres of subsurface mineral resources.
Also responsible for wildlife management and preservation of 400 million acers
Most of the lands BLM manages are in the W. US, including ________________
Dominated by extensive grasslands, forests, high mountains, ________________and deserts
The BLM manages a wide variety of resources and uses energy and minerals, timber, forage, wild horse, and
burrow population, fish and wildlife habitats, wilderness areas, and archaeological, paleontological and
historical sites
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ (1976): Outlined policy concerning the use
and preservation of public lands. Granted federal jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands
National Parks
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There are over ________ national parks in the world. Many of them don’t receive proper protection from
poachers, loggers, miners or farmers due to the costs involved
In the US National Park System encompasses about ________________________, 4 million remain in private
ownership.
The largest area is in Alaska and is more that ________ of the entire system
US national parks are threatened by high demand of large numbers of visitors, leads ________________, eroded
trails, noise and pollution
Other threats include off-road vehicles, introduction of ________________, commercial activities such as
mining, logging grazing and land development.
Solutions for National Park Problems:
o Reducing the amount of private land within national parks through incentives to current owners
o Providing ________________ programs to the public
o Setting quotas on ________________ through advanced reservation systems
o Adopting a fee system that covers all external costs
o Banning ________________________________
o Vanning autos and instead provide shuttle buses to control traffic
o Providing tax incentives for property owners near national parks to use land grants
o Conducting periodic and detailed wildlife and plant inventories.
Yellowstone National Park Act (1872): Preserves the watershed of the Yellowstone River “for the benefit and
enjoyment of the people”. For the first time, ________________________were preserved for public enjoyment
and were to be administered by the federal government
National Park Service Act (1916): Established that national parks are to be maintained in a manner that leaves
them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service to manage the parks
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ (1963): Laid out the Interior Department’s role as
coordinator for all federal agencies for programs affecting the conservation and development of recreation
resources
Wilderness Act (1964): Wilderness was defined by its ________________________________modification or
presence. Federal officials are required to manage wilderness areas in a manner conducive to retention of their
wilderness character.
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act (1965): Established a fund, administered by the National Park Service,
to assist the states and federal agencies in meeting present and future outdoor recreation demands and the
needs of the American people
________ ________ ________ ________ (1968): Established a national system of recreational, scenic and
historic trails
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968): Established a system of areas distinct from the traditional park concept to
ensure the protection of each river’s unique environment. Is also ________________ certain selected rivers that
possess outstanding scenic, recreational, ________________, cultural or historic values and maintains their freeflowing condition.
Wildlife Refuges
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President Theodore Roosevelt designated ________________________________of Florida in 1903 as the
first wildlife refuge, designed to protect breeding birds
He designated another ________________________before he left office in 1909
The early refuges were established primarily to protect wildlife such as the overhunted bison or birds killed
by market hunters such as egrets and waterfowl.
During the drought years of the Great Depression, refuges were created to protect waterfowl
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The system developed and the National Wildlife Refuge System consists of ________________and more
than 93 million acers and is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
Wetlands
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Areas covered by water and support plants that can grow in water-saturated soils
High plant productivity supports a rich ________________of animals.
Countries with the most wetlands are Canada, Russia and Brazil.
Wetlands were once about ________ of the land area in the US but have been reduced to 5%, most
wetlands are in Louisiana and Florida
Most wetland habitat loss- ________- is due to conversion of the land to agriculture and the rest is due to
urbanization
________of all endangered species in the US spend some of their life in wetlands
Wetlands serve as natural ________________________________by removing sediments, nutrients and
toxins from flowing water
Wetlands along lakes and oceans ________________ shorelines and reduce damages caused by storm
surges, reduce risk of flooding and reduce saltwater intrusion
Fens are wetlands characterized by continuous sources of groundwater rich in magnesium and calcium
which makes the soil very alkaline. This groundwater comes from ________ that have melted, depositing
their water in layers of gravel and sans. Water sits upon layers of soil that are ________________, thus
keeping the water from sinking beneath the surface, the water is forced to flow along the surface where it
picks up ________________ in its path
A Bog is a type of wetland that accumulates ________peat, a deposit of dead plant material (pre-coal). Bogs
are located in cold, temperate climates in boreal biomes in Western Siberia, parts of Russia, Ireland, Canada
and Minnesota and________________. They are generally low in ________________ and highly acidic.
Carnivorous plants have adapted to these conditions and use insects as their nutrients
Land Conservation Options
1. Protect biodiversity, wildlife habitats and the ecological functioning of public land ecosystems through
careful monitoring and enforcement
2. Adopt a ________________approach for extracting resources from public lands. Eliminate govt subsidies
and tax brakes to corporations that extract publically owned resources
3. Institute fair compensation for resources extracted from public land. Instead of the ________________the
extraction of resources, the corporations should be paying the government fair ________________for
natural resources
4. Require responsibility for those who damage or alter ________________
5. Adopt uneven-aged management forestry practices that foster maintaining a variety of tree species at
various ages and sizes. This management technique fosters biological diversity, long-term sustainable
production of high-quality timber, ________________and the principle of multiple use of the forests for
recreation, watershed protection, wildlife and timber
6. Include ________________________ services of trees in estimating value
7. Reduce road building into uncut forest acres. Require restoration plans for those roads that are currently in
place, and require such plans for future roads
8. Coordinate with the Forest Service on leaving fallen timber and standing dead trees in place to promote
nutrient cycling and providing wildlife habitats.
9. Grow timber on ________________________________
10. Reduce or climate clear-cutting, shelter wood cutting or seed tree cutting on sloped land
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Rely on more sustainable tree-cutting methods such as selective and strip cutting
Reduce________________________________of remaining large forests
Require certification of lumber that is cut according to sustainable forest practices
Use sustainable techniques for tropical forests: ________________________about sustainable forest
practices and their advantages, monitoring and enforcing cutting based on sound ecological principles and
reducing subsidies that encourage ________________________________, institute
________________________and conservation easements, creating subsidies for sustainable practices and
rehabilitation the area
15. Solutions to urban land use problems include Zoning.
Land Conservation Options
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Preservation or Sustainable: to keep or maintain intact
Remediation: The act or process of correcting a ________________________________________
________________________________: to moderate or alleviate in force or intensity
Restoration: to restore to former good condition. Ecosystem restoration involves management actions
designed to facilitate the recovery or r________________t of native ecosystems. A central premise of
ecological restoration is that restoration of natural systems to conditions consistent with their evolutionary
environments will prevent their further degradation wile simultaneously conserving their
________________________and animals
Mining
Pre-Extraction
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Before mining begins, economic decisions are made to determine if a site will be profitable The factors that
enter into the decision include current and projected price, amount of ore at the site, concentration, type of
mining required, cost of transporting the ore ti a processing facility and ________________________
Site Development
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Samples are taken from an area to determine the quality and ________________________________in a
location. Roads and equipment are brought in.
Extraction- Surface Mining
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Surface Mining: soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit (________) is removed and stored (________). Used
where deposits are found near the surface, and where the overburden is relatively thin or where tunneling isn't
an option. Surface mines are typically enlarged until the ________ is exhausted or the cost of removing large
volumes of overburden makes it impractical.
5 main forms:
– Strip mining: most commonly used to mine ________________________. Is the practice of mining a
seam of mineral by first removing a long strip of ________________. Area stripping is used on fairly flat
terrain to extract deposits over a large area. Overburden from one strip goes into the mined remain of
the previous strip. Contour strip mining is when the strips go with the curvature of the land.
– Open-pit Mining: extracting rock or mineral from the earth in an ________________________
– ________________________________: coal seam are removed and the soil is placed in adjacent lows
such as hallows or ravines. Replaces previously steep topography with a relatively level surface
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Dredging: bringing up ________________ mineral deposits. Usually employed to clear or enlarge
waterways for boats AND to recover minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply
Highwall Mining: uses continuous mining machine driven under remote control into the seam exposed
by previous open-cut air operations. A continuous ________________________________carries the
coal from the mine to an open-air installation for stockpile and transport
Extraction- Underground
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Large shafts are dug into the Earth. There is less surface destruction and waste rock produced than in
surface mining, but ________________________.
Often occurs below the water table so water must be constantly pumped out of the mine to prevent
________________________
When a mine is abandoned, the pumping ceases and the water ________________ the mine.
This introduction of water often results in acid rock drainage which is caused by certain bacteria accelerating
the decomposition of metal ________________ ions that have been exposed to air and water.
Extraction- In Situ
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With in situ leaching, ________________ are drilled into a site
Water-based chemical solvents extract the resource
Advantage: ________________since rocks don’t have to be broken up or removed, shorter time to
production, requires less surface ground disturbance and less mediation
Disadvantages: fluids i________________ into the Earth are toxic and can get into groundwater
Processing
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Involves intensive ________________processing during smelting
This is the method by which a metal is obtained from its ________, either as an element or a simple
compound
Usually accomplished by heating beyond the ________________, ordinarily in the presence of reducing
agents such as coke or oxidizing agents such as air
A metal whose ore is an oxygen compound ________________) is heated in a blast furnace to a high temp.
The oxide combined with the carbon in the coke, escaping ________________or CO2.
Other impurities are removed by adding ________, with which they combine to form slag.
If the ore is a sulfide mineral (copper nickel lead) air or oxygen is introduced to oxidize the sulfide to sulfur
dioxide and any iron to slag, leaving the metal behind.
In cyanide heap leaching, goad ore is heaped into ________________________.
________________ solution is then sprayed on top of the pile
As the Cyanide percolates down, the gold leaches out and pools at the bottom
The gold extracted bay be only ________________of the total ore processed. Liquid wastes containing
cyanide and other toxins are kept in tailing ponds which eventually leak and enter groundwater.
Tailings are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the ore
Tailings represent and external cost of ________________
In coal an oil sands mining, ________________ refers specifically to the fine wastes suspendered in water
Global Reserves
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________________of minerals are extracted and used each year in the US.
At the same time the US imports ________ of its most needed minerals
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As a mineral reserve becomes depleted, lower grades of ore are mined, which causes more processing and
more pollution
The US, Germany, and Russia ________________of the worlds population but they consume ________ of
the most widely used metals, with the US consuming ________
Global Reserve-Oil
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A large portion of Earths global crude oil reserve—________________has already been depleted.
It is estimated that there is a ________-year supply left on earth
½ is thought to be in ________________
The US owns ________ of the worlds oil reserves but used 30% of the oil extracted worldwide each year
Increased competition for foreign oil by China and India increase the worlds cost of oil
2/3 of the oil used in the US if for transportation
________is used for industry
Oil imports in the US increased from ________in 1996 to a projected ________by 2010
Global Reserve- Coal
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Coal is currently the worlds single largest source of fuel used to produce electricity
________ is the worlds largest producer
Global coal reserves are expected to last about ________ years at current extraction levels
Global Resources- Natural Gas
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Most of the worlds natural gas reserves are located in the Middle East (34%).
Europe, Russia and former USSR own ________ of the world reserves
The US possesses ________ of the total natural gas reserve
Given US production levels, there is enough natural gat to last about 75 years of domestic production
This estimate doesn’t take into account expected increasing levels of domestic production or the potential
opening of the currently restricted Arctic National Wildlife Reserve.
___________________________): Grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for
minerals in public domain lands and allows them, upon making discovery, to stake claim to that deposit
Mineral Leasing Act (1920): Authorizes and governs ________ of public lands for developing deposits of
coal, petroleum, natural gas and other hydrocarbons, phosphates and sodium in the US. Previous to the act,
these minerals were subjected to mining claims
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): Established a program for regulating
________________________________________________
Fishing
Types of Commercial Fishing
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Bottom Trawling: uses a ________________net to drag the ocean bottom. Shrimp, cod, flounder and
scallops. Analogous to clear-cutting forests. Species not wanted are called bycatch
Drift Net: Long expanses of nets that hand down in the water. Traps turtles, seabirds and marine mammals.
During the 1980’s, 10,000 dolphins, whales and millions of sharks were killed each year. 1992 UN voluntary
ban on drift nets longer than ________________are helping
Longline: placing very long lines with thousands of baited hooks. Swordfish, tuna, sharks, halibut and cod.
Endangers sea turtles, pilot whales and dolphins.
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Purse Sein: surrounds large schools of fish spotted by ________________ with a large net. Net is then
drawn tight. Tuna, mackerel, anchovies and herring.
Overfishing
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Oceans supply ________ of human food and represent ________ of worlds protein source
China is responsible for about 1/3 of all fish harvesting
1/3 of total catch is used for other consumption (fish oil, fish meal, animal feed)
Another ________is considered bycatch
Maximum sustainable yield is the largest amount of marine organisms that can be harvested without
causing the population to ________
This yield is generally when a population is maintained at ½ the carrying capacity
Methods to manage fishing in a ________________________
o Regulate locations and number of fish farms and monitor their pollution output
o Encourage the production of herbivores fish species
o Require and enforce labeling of fish products that were raided or caught with sustainable methods
o Set catch limits far below ________________________________________
o Eliminate govt subsidies for commercial fishing
o Methods to manage fishing in a sustainable manner
o Prevent________________of fish from foreign countries that don’t adhere to sustainable harvesting
methods
o Place trading sanctions on ________________________that don’t respect the marine habitat,
including countries with whale hunts
o Assess fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from ________________
o Increase penalties for fishing techniques that don’t allow for the escape of bycatch
o Ban the throwing back of ________________
o Monitor and destroy invasive species on ship ballast
o Planting ________________________on stream banks
o Rehabilitate instream habitats
o Controlling ________________
o Controlling ________________________
o Restoring fish passages around human-made impediments
o Monitoring, regulating and enforcing r________l and commercial fishing
o Protecting coastal ________________________ and wetlands
Aquaculture
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Known as________________________or fish farming
Involves stocking, feeding, protecting from predators, and harvesting
Growing about ________annually and provides 5% of total food production worldwide (mostly in less
developed countries)
Kelp makes up about ________of all aquaculture output
Used to raise 80% of the mollusks, 40% of all shrimp and 75% of all kelp we use
Other common products include: seaweed, mussels, oysters, shrimp, salmon, trout and catfish
Advantages: ________________organisms convert more feed to usable protein Example: for every 1 million
calories of feed requires, a trout raised on a farm produces about ________ of protein whereas a chicken
produces 15g and cattle produces 2 g.
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For every hectare of hectares, intense ocean farming can produce 58,000 kg of protein where normal
harvesting only produces ________.
For it to be economical, the species must be marketable, inexpensive to raise, ________________________,
at a marketable size within 1-2 years, and ________________________.
Aquaculture creates dense ________________________ that reduce biodiversity within habitats and
requires large levels of ________ in the water
Offers possibilities for sustainable ________________food production and economic development in
communities.
However, on an industrial scale it poses sever threats; threats to biodiversity, accidental release of alien or
modified organisms, transmission of diseases to wild stock, displacement of local and indigenous human
communities, degradation of habitat.
Case Study: PCB
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Polychlorinated biphenyls (________s) were banned in the US in the late 1970s are slated for global phaseout under the treaty on POPs.
PCBs are highly ________ and have been linked to cancer and impaired fetal brain development
Salmon farming has made salmon the third most popular fish in the US and comprises ________ of all retail
seafood. However, analysis of US govts data found that farmed salmon are likely the most PCBcontaminated ________________________
About 800,000 US adults have an increased cancer risk by eating PCB-contaminated salmon
Farmed salmon are fattened with ground fishmeal and fish oils that are high in PCBs
As a result, salmon farming operations that produce inexpensive fish unnaturally concentrate PBCs
AND salmon contains ________ more fat than wild salmon.
Relevant Laws
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Fish and Wildlife Act (1956): established a comprehensive national fish and shellfish resource policy
directed primarily to ________________.
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ (1965): Authorizes the Secretory of Interior to
enter into agreements with states and other non-federal interests to conserve, develop and enhance the
anadromous fish (fish that migrate from the sea to fresh water to spawn) resources of the US.
Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972): Prohibits, with certain exceptions________________of marine
mammals in US waters and by US citizens on the high seas and the importation of marine mammals and
marine mammal products to the US
Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976): Governs marine fisheries management in
the US federal waters. Aids in the development of the domestic fishing industry by phasing out foreign
fishing. To manage the fisheries and promote conservation. The Act created ________ regional fishery
management councils. The 1996 amendment focused on rebuilding of overfished fisheries, protecting
essential fish habitat and reducing bycatch
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ (1980): Assistance in training of state fish and
wildlife enforcement personnel and assistance to states in the development and revision of conservation
plans for nongame fish and wildlife
United Nations Treaty on the Law of the Sea (1982): Defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in
their use of the worlds ________________, establishing guidelines for business, the environment and the
management of marine natural resources.
Global Economics
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The economy and the environment are ________________________________such that both are causes and
effects and inputs and outputs of each other
The environment contains all the resources that can be used in the economy.
The use of resources for economic purposed continuously creates new ________________________
For example: while some resources are depleted and transformed from usable to unusable states, economic
resources are used to ________ additional resources. This occurs through increasing available supply of
materials , opening land to agricultural production, transporting resources from locations where they are in
surplus to areas of ________ and so on.
Increased levels of economic activity and improvements in living standards have occurred since the end of
________I.
People in wealthiest countries constitutes ________of the global population and enjoy average incomes 20X
greater that ________ of the population
If the income of the poorest 85% were raised to only ________of that of the richest countries, the level of
total world production and consumption would have to double, with a similar increase in the use of
resources
Continued increases in living standards in poorer countries will increase ________________of the planet.
Until recently, developments in the local economies and local environments were dispersed and isolated
They didn’t typically result in cumulative process that had widespread or global impact
However, with greater increase in population there is a significant increase in global environmental
disruption
The effects of these disruptions have become increasingly ________________________
World Bank
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Source of financial and technical assistance to developing countries around the world
The world bank ,owned by ________________ member countries, provides low-interest loans, interest-free
credit and grants to developing countries for education, health, building, communication and environmental
issues
In 2001, the Bank endorsed an environmental strategy to guide the banks actions in environmental areas;
improving quality of life, quality of growth and “________” of agriculture, water sanitation and other
projects
In 2005, they ________billion dollars to the areas of biodiversity, conservation, climate change,
international waters. Funded 740 million in projects to phase out ozone depleting substances and 1.6 billion
into projects that reduce greenhouse gases
Also is the greatest single source of funds for ________ projects, supplying ________for construction of
more than 500 large dams in ________ countries.
Tragedy of the Commons
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Garrett Hardin wrote “Tragedy of the Commons” in 1968
It parallels what is happening worldwide in regard to resource ________________________________
Seas, air, water, animals and minerals are all commons are for human use
Those who exploit them become rich
The price of depleting the resources of the commons is an ________________paid by the people of the earth.
Limits:
o Economic decisions are generally ________________, bases on reactions in the world markets.
Environmental decisions are ________________
o Land that is privately owned is subject to ________________
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Some commons are easier to control that others. Land, lakes, rangeland. Deserts and forests are
geographically defined and easier to control than air or open oceans. This is the problems with the US
and the ________________________________
Incorporating discount rates into calculation of resources would be an incentive for investors to bear the
short term cost for a ________________________
Breaking a commons into smaller, privately owned fragments the policies of governing the entire
commons. Different standards and practices used on one area may or may not affect all other areas.
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