Introduction to Zoology
Unit 1- Mrs. Stahl
Zoology- What is it?
• The study of animals of course! 
• Extremely broad because there are so many
concentrations and sooooo many animals.
• There are 8.7 million organisms on Earth, only 1.7
millions have been described.
• Only 14% of the worlds species have been
identified- that leave 86% left
• Only 9% of the oceans species have been identified.
▫ Ex- 20,000 species of bony fish
▫ Ex- 300,000 species of beetles
Category
Species
Totals
Vertebrate Animals
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibians
Fishes
5,490
9,998
9,084
6,433
31,300
Total Vertebrates
62,305
Invertebrate Animals
Insects
1,000,000
Spiders and scorpions
102,248
Molluscs
Crustaceans
Corals
Others
85,000
47,000
2,175
68,827
Total Invertebrates
1,305,250
Plants
Flowering plants (angiosperms)
281,821
Conifers (gymnosperms)
1,021
Ferns and horsetails
12,000
Mosses
16,236
Red and green algae
10,134
Total Plants
Others
Lichens
Mushrooms
Brown algae
Total Others
TOTAL SPECIES
321,212
17,000
31,496
3,067
51,563
1,740,330
What is an animal???????????????
• A living organism that feeds on
organic matter, typically having
specialized sense organs and nervous
system and able to respond rapidly.
Why do we want to study animals?
So we can study their:
- Functionality
- Structure
- Ecological Role and
Importance
- Evolution
Kingdom Animalia
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Multicellular
Eukaryotic
Consumers / Heterotrophs
Specialized Tissues- various tissues and organs
Aerobic Respiration / Cellular Respirationmetabolically break down food and use ATP
energy to drive all of their functions.
• Sexual Reproduction
• Mobility
Characteristics of Animals
• Originated in the Precambrian Era over 600 mya.
• Eukaryotes- organisms whose cells contain a
nucleus.
• Includes Plants, Fungi, and some unicellular
organisms.
• Animals -unique in nutrition; they eat other
organisms and therefore need to capture food.
• Animals lack photosynthesis; cell walls found in
plants.
• Fungi absorb food through little tubular filaments
called hyphae which animals do not have.
Some are neither plants nor animals….
• Euglena- motile, single celled organism that
resembles plants in that they can be
photosynthetic but also resembles animals in
that they eat food particles.
• Kingdom Protista.
Animals also…..
• Motile- move about from one location to the
next.
• Sessile- Cannot move from place to place but
they still have moving parts.
• What are 5 animals that are sessile and 5 that
are motile?
• Respiration
• Digestion
• Ingestion
Sessile
Motile
How are they classified????
• Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
• He came up with a means of naming organisms that was
simple and universal.
• Problem before this was that people were naming things
multiple names that were really long, and there wasn’t any
consistency.
• Taxonomy- science of classifying organisms and assigning
each organism a universally accepted name.
• Linnaeus came up with binomial nomenclature-> two
word naming system
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Genus, species
Always in italics
Genus is capitalized and species lowercased
Ex- Homo sapiens
Classification
System
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Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain!!!!
Three Domains & Six Major Kingdoms
Domains
• Bacteria-> contains
single celled
prokarotes. Largest
group on Earth.
• Archaea-> Microbes
that live in extreme
environments
• Eukarya-> organisms
with
compartmentalized
cells, eukaryotic cells.
Kingdoms
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Animalia- Animals
Plantae- Plants
Fungi- Fungus
Protista- animal like and
plant like
• Bacteria
• Archaea
Class Agnatha
Chondrichthyes
Osteichthyes
Amphibia
Reptila
Aves
Mammalia
Two Major Categories
• Vertebrates- with a backbone
• Invertebrates- without a backbone
• What am I?
Comparison
• Vertebrates
▫ Internal
segmented
backbone
▫ Most obvious
▫ Make up less
than 5 % of
animal species
• Invertebrates
▫ Without
backbone
▫ Closely related
to each other
▫ About 95% of
all animals are
inverts.
Taxonomy- How it’s broken down!
• Kingdom Animalia
• Phylum Chordata
• Class:
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Agnatha= Lampreys
Chondrichthyes=Sharks and Rays
Osteichthyes= Bony Fish
Amphibia= Frogs and Salamanders
Reptilia=Reptiles
Aves=Birds
Mammalia=Mammals
Vertebrate facts and
Characteristics
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More than one million species of animals.
Tens of millions undiscovered
Specialized tissues and organs
Found EVERYWHERE!!!
Have a backbone or vertebrate column
Have a skull or cranium
An internal skeleton
Range in size. Largest being the blue whale.
Seven Essential Functions
to all Vertebrates
• 1. Feeding▫
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Herbivore- eats plants
Carnivore- eats meat
Omnivore- eats both plants and animals
Detritivore- feeds on dead things
Filter Feeders- strain food from the water
Parasite- lives on or in another organism.
• 2. Respiration- takes in oxygen, gives off
carbon dioxide. Can be done through
gills, lungs, skin, diffusion
• 3. Circulation- circulating of blood
through vessels.
• 4. Excretion- primary waste is ammonia.
Liquid waste filtered by the kidneys.
• 5. Response- receptor cells= sound, light,
external stimuli
• 6. Movement- most are motile and the
muscles work with skeleton
• 7. Reproduction- most sexually= genetic
diversity.
Let’s Narrow it down a little….
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Ichthyology- Study of fish
Entomology- insects
Herpetology- amphibians & reptiles
Mammalogy- mammals
Ornithology- birds
Protozoology- Protozoa
Let’s Review a little…..
• All living things must be able to:
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1. Reproduce
2. Made up of cells
3. Respond to a stimulus
4. Grow and develop
5. Evolve and change
6. Metabolize- need and use chemical energy
7. Maintain Homeostasis
8. Be made up of DNA
9. Chemical Uniqueness
Made up of Cells
• Smallest and basic unit of
life.
• Each level builds on the level
below it.
• Ex- within a cell
macromolecules are
assembled into ribosome's,
chromosomes, and
membranes and they are
then built upon to form
organelles such as the
mitochondria.
Continues on to populations and
species.
DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Stores genetic information
• Made up of nucleotides (4 nitrogenous base
pairs-AGCT), sugars, and phosphates.
• Adenine (A) pairs up with Thymine (T)
• Guanine (G) pairs up with Cytosine (C)
• The sequence of the bases is what codes for the
order of amino acids in the protein sequence
(amino acids).
Chemical Uniqueness
• Complex molecular organization
• Macromolecules- Proteins, Lipids,
Carbohydrates, and Nucleic Acids
• Ex- Proteins- 20 specific amino acids
Reproduction
• Life has to come from prior life.
• Living forms reproduce to generate others like
themselves.
• Genes replicate to form new genes
• Cells divide to produce new cells
• Reproduce sexually or asexually
• Populations split up and new species are
produced= speciation.
Metabolism
• Have to acquire nutrients from their environment in
order to maintain proper energy levels.
• Nutrients-> chemical energy for the body to use in the
form of ATP.
• Chemical processes include digestion, respiration, and
synthesis of molecules.
• Interaction between catabolic (destructive) and
anabolic (constructive)
• Cellular Respiration-> mitochondria
• Cellular and nuclear membranes (nucleus) regulate
metabolism by controlling the movement of molecules
in and out of the cell.
Growth and Development
• All organisms have a life cycle that they go
through from origin (when the sperm fertilizes
the egg = fertilization) to adulthood.
• Changes in size, shape, and differentiation in
structures.
• Unicellular are more simple than Multicellular.
• Metamorphosis- many organisms have similar
early stages of development and are hard to tell
apart.
Stimulus
• How do they interact / respond with their
environment?
• Often referred to as ecology focusing on
geographic distribution and population
abundance.
• They respond by adapting their metabolism and
physiology so that they can survive in the
environment in which they live.
Evolution
• Change over time.
Homeostasis
• Maintaining an internal balance.
Life Obeys the Laws of Physics
• The first law of thermodynamics-> conserving energy.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be
transferred from one form to another.
▫ a. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be
transformed from one form to another.
▫ b. All aspects of life require energy.
▫ c. In animals, chemical energy in food is converted to chemical
energy in cells and then converted to mechanical energy of
muscle contraction.
• All our energy comes from the sun-> reaches Earth as light
or heat-> Plants capture this light in the form of
Photosynthesis in green plants and cyanobacteria
transforms energy into chemical bonds-> bonds form
potential energy (stored)-> bond breaks and the energy is
released and used to perform many cellular tasks->
transferred to animals.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Physical systems tend to proceed toward a state of
greater disorder or entropy.
• Energy obtained and stored by plants is released by
various mechanisms and then dissipated as heat.
• It takes a constant input of usable energy from food
to keep an animal organized.
• The process of evolution does not violate the second
law; complexity is achieved by constant use and loss
of energy flowing into the biosphere from the sun.
• Physiologists study survival, growth, reproduction,
etc. from an energetic perspective.
Classification into a kingdom is based
on certain criteria
• Number of cells
• How it obtains energy
• Type of cell
• DNA
Kingdom Animalia & it’s Major Phyla
• Porifera- sponges
• Cnidaria- hydras, sea anemones, jelly fish,
and corals
• Annelida- marine worms, earthworms, and
leeches
• Mollusca- snails, octopi, squids, clams,
mussels, conchs, etc.
• Arthropoda- crabs, insects, lobsters, etc.
• Echinodermata- sea stars, sea urchins, sand
dollars, brittle stars
• Chordata- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
mammals
The Scientific Method
•Used to set up an experiment
in order to test a hypothesis or
solve a problem.
Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Make an observation
Ask a question / Research
Form a hypothesis
Experimentation
Collect data / Results
Analyze and Conclude
Repeat
Observation
Use senses to study the
world. Can also use tools
such as previous biological
research and computers.
Inference= logical
interpretation based on
prior knowledge.
Which is it- observation or
inference?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The skin is red?
The apple is edible.
There are seeds inside.
It can make you healthy.
It feels smooth.
Example of an observation
The white shark just jumped out of the water.
Conduct Researchto gain knowledge about what your
studying / researching
Periodicals
Research reports
Trade magazines- science news
Trade books
Dictionaries
Encyclopedias
Indexes
Handbooks
Ask a Question
Do other sharks jump out of
the water or just white
sharks?
Hypothesis
Not an EDUCATED GUESS- in science we
don’t like to say that we are “guessing”
Prediction based on prior knowledge.
Typically use the words If and Then!
If a great white shark jumps out of the water
when attacking their prey, then other sharks
such as bull sharks should jump out of the
water when attacking prey because they belong
to the same family, therefore they should have
similar behaviors.
• Inductive
▫ Looking at individual
observations and
proposing a general
explanation for them.
▫ Example-> Scientist
may observe an
octopus and squid,
both cephalopods, have
arms with suckers and
conclude that all
cephalopods have arms
with suckers.
• Deductive
▫ Observations suggest a
general principle from
which a specific
statement can be
derived.
▫ Example-> all
cephalopods have arms
with suckers and since
a cuttlefish is a
cephalopod then it
must also have arms
with suckers.
Experiment
Try to find the cause and effect relationship.
A. Independent Variable-> What you, the
experimenter changes or manipulates. Exampleconditions= hot / cold
B. Dependent Variable> the variable that changes
because of the IV (results / data). Example- height of
the plant (you, the experimenter has zero control
over how high that plant grows).
C. Constants or Control Variables-> variables that
remain the same. What is normal, for examplekeeping the plant at room temperature.
Data
Qualitative= descriptions
using your senses
Quantitative= Numbers
Results
• Statistical analysis
▫ Statistically significant= the data showed an
effect that is likely not due to chance.
▫ Nonsignificant= the data shows no effect, or
an effect so small that the results could have
happened by chance.
• Use data tables and graphs to represent data
collected.
Analysis and Conclusion
• Make sense of your experiment in
words, submit a journal paper to your
peers for review, and if it can be
duplicated / repeated with the same
results then your research could
become published.
What happens if your hypothesis is
wrong?
Try again, revamp your procedure / experiment.
Theory
• Proposed explanation for a wide range of
observations and experimental results that is
supported by a wide range of evidence. Provides
explanations where scientific laws do not.
• It can be added to or disproven
• Ex- Theory of Evolution, Theory of Plate
Tectonics
Scientific Law
A truth that is valid everywhere in
the universe.
It does not provide any explanations
like a theory does
Ex- the law of conservation of
energy- energy may change form but
it can’t be created nor destroyed.
Graphing and Measurements
Y-axis /
DV
X- axis / IV
We use charts and graphs to:
• Analyze the results and to provide
visual summaries
Data Tables
• Contains the numerical results of an experiment.
Compiled before you make a chart or graph.
Color of M&M in a bag
Frequency
Red
5
Green
2
Blue
4
Yellow
1
Brown
5
Line Graphs
• Shows a relationship between two variables.
Bar
Graphs
• Compares quantitative / qualitative data.
Histograms
• Show the frequency distribution of the data.
• The bars touch!
• Ex- using the numbers make a data table and
histogram in your notes.
▫ 7, 12, 12, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 36, 36, 39,
43, 47
Histogram Data Table
Data Range
Frequency
0-10
1
11-20
3
21-30
6
31-40
4
41-50
2
Stem and Leaf Plot
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Another way to present a frequency distribution.
Represents actual data point
Tens= “stem”
Ones= “leaves”
Stem
Leaf
0
7
1
228
2
246789
3
1669
4
37
Circle Graph
• Shows data as proportions of a whole
• “pie chart”- percentages
The Metric System- see attached
note sheets
• IS- International System of Measurements
▫ Used worldwide
▫ Based on the metric system
▫ Common units:
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Length- Meters (m)
Volume- Liter (L)
Mass- Kilograms (kg)
Temperature- Kelvin (K)
Microscopes!!!!!!!!!!
Light or Compound Microscopes
• What we use in the classroombasic
• Several lenses to increase
magnification
• Uses glass lenses to focus on a
specimen.
• Can be used on living or preserved
specimens
• Can magnify objects up to 1500
times their actual size.
• Specimens are often stained with
chemicals so that we can see them.
stom
a
Dissecting Microscope
• Stereoscope
• Three dimensional image / view of the specimen
• Essentially two compound microscopes that are
focused on the same thing.
• Low magnification so its hard to see individual
cells- used for larger cells.
Scanning Electron Microscope
• Narrow beams of
electrons that scan the
surface of the specimen
• Usually the specimen is
covered with a thin layer
of metal such as gold
that deflects the
electrons from passing
through the specimen
and onto a computer
where color is added.
stoma
Transmission Electron Microscope
• Passes beams of electrons
through the specimen and
projects it onto a
computerized screen where
color is added.
• Produces the best image
because it magnifies the
object so much.
stoma
Parts of a Microscope
• Nosepiece- holds the objective lenses above the
stage and rotates so that all the lenses can be
used.
• Low Power Objective- magnifies an image 10X
• Stage clip- holds the slide in place
• Stage- supports the object being looked at.
• Diaphragm- adjusts the amount of light passing
through the slide and into the lens.
• Light source- lights up the specimen
• Eyepiece- contains a lens that magnifies the object
10X. You look through this to view the specimen.
• Body- separates the lens in the eyepiece from the
other lens.
• Arm- supports the body and this is where you hold it
while supporting the base.
• Scanning Objective- smallest lens and magnifies 4X
• High Power Objective- largest lens and magnifies
40X
• Fine Adjustment- dial used to focus in on the object
when it’s on high power.
• Course Adjustment- used to focus the image when
it’s on scanning or low power.
• Base- supports the scope.
Magnification
3 types- scanning, low, and high
Ocular lens
Total
Magnification
Total
Magnification
Total
Magnification
High
Power
40x
10x
400x
Low
Power
10x
10x
100x
Scanning
4x
10x
40x
Videos
The End!!!!!!!
Review Next Class
Test Class After
that!!!!!!!!!!!!