Focus on Form
in Second Language
Acquisition
Cheng Xiaotang
School of Foreign Languages and Literature
Beijing Normal University
I. What is focus on form?
Background:
After a long time of debate on the
advantages and disadvantages of formfocused instruction and meaning-focused
instruction, in the late 1980s and early 1990s,
the mainstream view on this issue seemed to
agree that second language teaching
(acquisition) that is primarily meaningfocused can be improved if some degree
of attention is paid to form.
A few definitions:
Focus on form … overtly draws
students’ attention to linguistic
elements as they arise incidentally in
lessons whose overriding focus is on
meaning or communication (Long,
1991, cited in Doughty, 2001)
Focus on form involves an occasional
shift in attention to linguistic code
features — by the teacher and/or one
or more students — triggered by
perceived
problems
with
comprehension or production (Long
and Robinsin, 1998)
Focus on form: within a communicative
approach, referring to learners and
teachers addressing formal features of
language that play a role in the meanings
that are negotiated. This is contrasted with
a focus on formS, which emphasis formal
aspects rather than meaningful activities
(Carter and Nunan, 2001).
II. Difference between focus on
form and focus on formS
Focus on form
(FonF instruction)
The word form refers to
language form in general;
Learners first engage in
meaning; then explore some
linguistic features.
Occasional shift of attention
to form
Focus on forms
(forms-focused instruction)
Forms refers to discrete,
isolated, specific language
forms
Primary attention to form
Most attention to form
Focus on form
(FonF instruction)
Triggered by perceived
problems in comprehension
or production
Linguistic features are
explored in contexts.
Analytical approach
Focus on forms
(forms-focused instruction)
Pre-selected in the syllabus
Forms are taught in isolation
Synthetic approach
Summary:
… a focus on form entails a focus on formal
elements of language, whereas focus on
forms is limited to such a focus, and focus on
meaning excludes it. … the fundamental
assumption … is that meaning and use must
already be evident to the learner at the time
that attention is drawn to the linguistic
apparatus needed to get the meaning across
(Doughty and Williams, 1998).
III. Why focus on form?
(1) When classroom second language learning
is entirely experiential and meaning-focused
(e.g., the immersion program in Canada),
some linguistic features do not ultimately
develop to target-like levels.
(2) Aspects of the L2 input learners need to
notice, but do not (for whatever reason), will
require some kind of pedagogical intervention
(Doughty, 2002).
(3) Pedagogical interventions embedded in
communicative activities can be effective in
overcoming classroom limitations on SLA.
(4) Focus on form can push learners beyond
communicatively effective language toward
target-like second language ability; It can
speed up natural acquisition processes
IV. Different responses to focus on
form



Teachers adhering to communicative
language teaching reject it;
Traditional grammar-oriented teachers
take it as an justification for a return
to grammar
FonF enthusiasts try to explore how
FonF can be implemented
V. Research issues on FonF
(1) Whether or not to focus on form:
There are reasons both for and against
form on form. Presently it is generally
agreed the classroom context should be
considered when deciding whether or not
to focus on form.
(2) Timing for focus on form: What is the
ideal time for FonF to take place? Predecided or only when triggered by need?
How long should it be?
(3) Contextual factors affecting
focus on form: What factors need be
considered when deciding on the nature
and degree of focus on form, e.g., the
nature of the language program
(immersion vs. intensive programs) and
learner factors (e.g., age)?
(4) Proactive versus reactive focus on
form: A proactive approach would entail
selecting in advance an aspect of the target
to focus on, whereas a reactive stance would
require that the teacher notice and be
prepared to handle various learning
difficulties as they arise.
(5) What forms to focus on: Which forms
do learners need to focus on? What forms
are amendable to FonF?
(6) The degree of explicitness: To what
extent should attention to form be explicit?
That is, should learning tasks aim to draw
learner attention to form unobtrusively or,
instead, to direct learner attention to the
problem area more explicitly?
(7) Curricular decision: Can certain tasks be
designed during which problematic forms are
likely to arise so that there is an opportunity
to focus on form?
(8) Cognitive underpinnings of focus on
form: What are the cognitive processes that
the learner goes through when focus on form
takes place? (Doughty, 2001)
VI. Focus on form and language
teaching pedagogy
Focus on
meaning
Natural
Approach
Metho- Immersion
dology Procedural
Syllabus
Focus on form
Task-based
lang. teaching
Content-based
lang. teaching
Process
Syllabuses
Focus on
formS
Grammartranslation
Silent Way
TPR
Structural
syllabuses
VII. Ways of focusing on form






Conscious reflection
Noticing the gap
Hypothesis formulation and testing
Meta-talk
recasting
Typographical (visual) input enhancement:
manipulation of italics, bolding, enlargement,
underlining, colouring,
References
Carter, Ronald and Nunan, David. 2001. The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English
to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Doughty, Catherine. 2001. Cognitive underpinnings of focus on form. In Robinson, P.
(ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Doughty, Catherine, 2003. Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and
enhancement. In Doughty, Catherine and Long, Michael (eds.), The Handbook
of Second Language Acquisition. Blackwell.
Doughty, Catherine and Williams, Jessica. (Eds.) 1998. Focus on Form in Classroom
Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Long, Michael and Robinson, Peter. 1998. Theory, research and practice. In Doughty,
Catherine and Williams, Jessica. (Eds.), Focus on Form in Classroom Second
Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Long, Michael. 1991. Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching
methodology. In K. de Bot, Ginsberg, R. and Kramsch, C. (eds.), Foreign
Language Research in cross-cultural perspective. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.