Sociological Investigation
*The
Basics of Sociological
Investigation
*Science: Basic Elements and
Limitations
*The Methods of Sociological
Research
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Science: A logical
system that bases
knowledge on direct,
systematic observations
concerning human
behavior.
Empirical Evidence- Is
information we can verify
with our common sense.
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First Framework:
Scientific SociologyThe study of society
based on systematic
observations of social
behavior.
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Science of Sociology- is based on empirical
knowledge that is as valid as possible given
existing research procedures. Scientific
knowledge is intended to be value-free insofar
as it is concerned with fact rather than morality.
Scientific facts are continually subject to
revision in light of new discoveries.
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Scientific Explanation-The goal of scientific
explanation is to permit the scientist to move beyond
simple description to make reliable statements
concerning the nature of relationships exiting in
observed phenomena. Reliable statements posses a
high degree of certainty that what is predicted will be
the successful combination of theory and relevant
research. An orderly system that looks at the reality
of what is “out there.”
Science: The Basic Elements and
Limitations
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Positivism- assumes that an objective reality exists
and is really “out there.”
Concept- refers to either relations or descriptions.
Concepts are not statements and are neither true nor
false.
When concepts are interrelated in a scheme, a theory
begins to emerge.
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Variable- A trait or characteristic that can vary in
value to magnitude form case to case.
Characteristics that are normally variable can be
made constant through experimental design, as when
a researcher focuses on people of the same age,
sex, social class, and so on, in order to study
variation in other traits.
Measurement- a set of rules for the assignment of
numbers to the different outcomes a variable can
exhibit.
Example= strongly disagree, disagree, neutral,
agree, strongly agree.
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Concepts such as an inch, meter, and the like do not
exist in nature but are arbitrary measures of length,
with agreed upon meanings, invented by scientists.
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Operationalizing a Variable-Specifying exactly what
one is to measure before assigning a value to a
variable.
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Reliability-the consistency in measurement. In order
to have reliability the test must be able to be
replicated and receive the same results.
Validity- Is the precision in measuring exactly what
one intends to measure. A test must measure exactly
what is says it will measure.
Correlation- the measured strength between two
variables.
Spurious correlation- apparent although false
relationship between two or more variables caused
by some other variable.
Control- holding constant all variables except one in
order to see clearly the effects of that variable.
In order for research to be true it must have both
reliability and validity.
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Objectivity- a state of personal
neutrality in conducting
research.
Max Weber a German Sociologist
(1864-1920)
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Father of Sociological Method.
Thought it was of great importance to see the other
person’s point of view.
Weber firmly believed that, although true objectivity
was impossible, the sociologist should attempt to
remain value-free.
A Second Framework: Interpretive
Sociology
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Interpretive Sociology- Max Weber pioneered this
framework, according to Weber humans do not
simple act; we engage in meaningful actions. The
focus is on how individuals interpret this interaction
and place meaning on everyday interactions. It is the
interpretation of peoples actions where meaning is
placed.
Interpretive Sociology is the study of society that
focuses on the meanings people attach to their social
world.
A Third Framework: Critical Sociology
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Karl Marx founded the critical approach. He did not
believe that society exists in a natural state with a
fixed order.
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Critical Sociology- the study of society that focuses
on the need for social change. Critical Sociologists
see patterns of inequality and there is a dominance to
reality.
Gender and Research
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Gender- the personal traits and social positions that
members of a society attach to being female of male.
Androcentricity- Male centered research.
Overgeneralization- Avoid making
overgeneralizations about the population, there is a
need to stay focused on what is being researched.
Gender blindness- The lives of men and women are
very different.
Double standards- Double standards should not be
given to men or to women.
Interference- The researcher could distort the study if
the respondent or researcher is affected by the sex of
the other.
The Methods of Sociological Research
A systematic plan for conducting research.
Experiment- a research method for investigating
cause and effect under highly controlled conditions.
Hypothesis- an unverified statement of a relationship
between variables.
A hunch or guess that is generally stated as a
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proposition of the “if . . .then. . . “ variety.
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Hawthorn Effect- a change in
the subject’s behavior
caused by the awareness of
being studied.
Asking Questions: Survey Questions
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Survey- a research method in which subjects
respond to a series of statements or questions in a
questionnaire or an interview.
Conducting Interviews- a series of questions a
researcher administers in person to respondents.
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Population- The larger the population the better. 60
to 100 is a good number for a small survey.
Sample- The part of the population that represents
the whole. The participants in a survey are the
sample population of that survey.
Questionnaires- a series of written questions a
researcher presents to subjects.
Interview- a series of questions a researcher
administers in person to respondents.
Using Available Data
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Secondary Analysis- a researcher uses the data
available. By using previous research a can exhaust
a bed of research and find what is important to the
field being studied.
Inductive Logic- from the inside out. The researcher
works from the specific to the general. The
researcher works from the ground level up and the
observations lead to a general theory.
Deductive Logic- from the outside in. The researcher
works from the general to the specific. The theory is
stated first then a hypothesis is formed and a method
is found to test it.