Chapter 7:
International Organization:
An Alternative Structure
“Friendly counsel cuts off many foes.”
—William Shakespeare, Henry VI Part I
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An Overview of International
Organizations
Function:
General or specialized
Geographical:
Global or regional
Intergovernmental (IGOs) or nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs)
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The Origins of IGOs
Belief in a community of humankind
Developmental stages:
League of Nations
United Nations
Big-power peacekeeping:
UN Security Council
Pragmatic cooperation:
Wide range of specialized agencies: Central
Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815)
is the oldest
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The Growth of IGOs
Rapid growth in the number of all types of
IGOs during the 20th century
Qualitative growth as well
Roles of IGOs are expanding and taking on
new global issues and functions
Example: International Mobile Satellite
Organization (IMMARSAT)
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Theories of IGO Growth
Functionalism:
“Bottom-up” evolutionary approach
Begins with limited, pragmatic cooperation on
narrow, nonpolitical issues that leads to broader
and higher levels of cooperation later on
Neofunctionalism:
“Top-down” approach
Need to establish independent and powerful IGOs
to address current political issues
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Reasons for Growth
Increased international contact
Increased global interdependence
Expansion of transnational problems
Failure of state-centered system to provide
security
Efforts of small states to gain strength through
joint action
Successful role models
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Role of IGOs: Interactive Arena
Interactive arena where nations pursue self-interest
Disadvantages of using IGO as an interactive arena:
• IGO becomes focus of struggle and not forum for
cooperation
• Reduced support for IGOs if they do not promote national
interests and/or goals
Advantages of use of IGO as an interactive arena:
• Intergovernmentalism
• Using IGO makes it politically easier to take action
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Role of IGOs: Center of Cooperation
Promote and facilitate cooperation on specific issues,
often nonpolitical
Seek to build trust and solve social and economic
issues that transcend national borders
Regime theory: A complex of IGOs, NGOs, norms of
behavior, processes, and treaties that govern national
and international actors
Create settings for interaction and cooperation
The Regime for the Oceans and Seas
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Role of IGOs: Independent
International Actor
Permanent administrative IGO staff increases
its authority and role
Role of mediation and conciliation
Organizational independence
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Role of IGOs: Supranational
Organization, continued
Specialized supranational governance:
World Trade Organization
Regional government:
European Union
Task of overcoming nationalism and bringing
heterogeneous peoples together easier than global
government
Allows for greater cultural diversity and political
experimentation than global government
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Role of IGOs: Supranational
Organization, continued
World government:
Far-reaching alternative facing many criticisms concerning
its adverse effects on national sovereignty, cultural
diversity, and political experimentation,
Concern about the ability of world government to preserve
and extend democracy in countries around the world.
Doubts about the problem-solving effectiveness and
unprecedented concentration of power required to enforce
international law and address world's daunting economic
and social problems.
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Role of IGOs: Supranational
Organization, continued
Issues for structuring a world or regional government
Centralized, federal or confederal government
Allocation of decision-making authority and power to
different executive, legislative, and judicial institutions
Democratic opting-out rights to member nations
Uniform monetary policy, common currency, and
consensus trade rules
Preserving individual human rights and liberties in each
nation through constitutional and judicial protections
Admission criteria for new members
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Regional IGOs: Focus on the
European Union
Expanding regional organization that has evolved
through several stages and names
Moving toward fuller economic and political
integration
But not without controversy—recent debate
surrounding the EU constitution
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The Origins and Evolution of the
European Union
Economic integration:
European Economic Community (EEC)
European Atomic Energy Community
(EURATOM)
European Community (EC)
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The Origins and Evolution of the EU
Political Integration:
Maastricht Treaty
Monetary integration-the EURO
Common foreign and defense policy
Coordination of policy on social issues such as
crime, terrorism, and immigration
Treaty of Amsterdam and Treaty of Nice:
further political and economic integration
Expanding membership
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The Government of the EU: A Prototype
Political leadership:
Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union):
Weighted votes, sets policy
Bureaucracy:
European Commission: Implements policy
President of the Commission
Oversight agencies
Legislature:
European Parliament
Judiciary:
Courts of Justice, First Instance, Auditors
European Ombudsman
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The Future of the European Union
Duality about further integration; several
determining and controversial factors
Ratification of EU constitution
Dutch and French rejection
Questions about further expansion, state
sovereignty, jobs, agricultural trade subsidies
by individual nations, Britain's refusal to adopt
common currency (the Euro), and immigration
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Global IGOs: The United Nations
Best known and most influential IGO
Structure and rules are important for
success and are consistently being
challenged
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Membership Issues
Standards for admitting new members:
The Palestinian question
Kosovo/Serbia dispute
Successor state status:
USSR -> Russia
Withdrawal, suspension, or expulsion:
Nationalist China (Taiwan), South Africa
during apartheid
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Representative Bodies
Usually some plenary representative body (UN
General Assembly)
Limited membership council (UN Security
Council—only five permanent members)
Highly criticized:
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Inaccurate reflection of power realities
Geographic and demographic imbalance
Inequitable and unlimited veto power
Transparency and accountability of decisions
Ineffective implementation of Security Council
resolutions
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Voting Formulas
Majority vote: 1 state, 1 vote.
UN General Assembly
Weighted voting by population or wealth
Negative voting:
Unanimity requirement
Veto power:
• UN Security Council
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IGO Leadership
Secretariat: Political and regional selection
considerations
Role: Activism versus restraint
Cases of the UN secretary-generals:
Dag Hammarskjold (1953–1961)
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992–1996)
Kofi Annan (1997–2006)
Ban Ki-moon (2007-Present)
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IGO Bureaucracy
Size
Restraints on selection of Secretariat staff
Dominant powers make appointments
Geographic and gender composition of
staff
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UN Administration
Administrative reform:
Staff and budget considerations and cutbacks
Issues of gender equality
Corruption (e.g., Iraq Oil for Food Program)
Putting charges of maladministration in
perspective:
U.S. comparisons
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Financing the United Nations:
The Elements of the UN Budget
Core budget
Peacekeeping budget
Voluntary contributions budget
Severe and controversial budget problems
Dependent on assessment with little power
to raise support
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UN Budget Crunch
Growing cost of operations
Size of bureaucracy
Unwillingness of member-countries to pay
dues
U.S. debt cleared by Congress only recently
Criticism of assessment scheme: eight
countries pay 76% of costs
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IGO Activities:
Promoting International Peace and Security
Creating norms against violence
Providing a debate alternative
Diplomatic intervention
Inquiry, good offices, mediation,
arbitration, and adjudication
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IGO Activities, continued
Sanctions:
Diplomatic and economic (e.g., Iran and Sudan)
Peacekeeping:
Expanding role: from neutral buffers to military intervention
to nation-building efforts (e.g., Lebanon, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and Kosovo)
Arms Control and Disarmament:
International Atomic Energy Agency—promotes and
monitors the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons (e.g.,
North Korea)
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Social, Economic, Environmental,
and Other Activities of IGOs
Economic development
Human rights
The environment
International law and norms
The quality of human existence
Independence
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Evaluating IGOs and Their Future
Standards:
What are the ultimate goals?
Has progress been made?
What is possible?
Do any alternatives exist?
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