Theory and Methods
“Sociology may be defined as the study of
society - the web of human interactions
and relationships”: Ginsberg (“The Study
of Society”, 1939)
“The purpose of
Sociology is the scientific
study of human society
through the investigation
of people’s social
behaviour”: Giner
(“Sociology”, 1972)
“Sociology is the objective study of human behaviour
in so far as it is affected by the fact people live in
groups”: Sugarman (“Sociology”, 1968)
What Is Sociology?
“Sociology is the study of human
social life, groups and societies. It is
a dazzling and compelling
enterprise, having as its subject
matter our own behaviour as social
beings. The scope of sociology is
extremely wide, ranging from the
analysis of passing encounters
between individuals in the street up
to the investigation of world-wide
social processes”: Giddens
(“Sociology”, 1989)
“Sociology is the study of
individuals in a social
setting…Sociologists study
the interrelationships
between individuals,
organisations, cultures and
societies”: Ritzer
(“Sociology”, 1979)
“Sociology is the study of
individuals in groups in a
systematic way, which grew
out of the search for
understanding associated
with the industrial and
scientific revolutions of the
18th and 19th centuries”:
Lawson and Garrod (“The
Complete A-Z Sociology
Handbook”, 1996)
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Two major themes
Identify some of the things
sociologists study
Examples
Identify some of the ways
sociologists study social life
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Two major themes
Identify some of the things
sociologists study
Identify some of the ways
sociologists study social life
Sociologists study social behaviour
- people and their patterns of
behaviour. The focus is on the way
people form relationships and how
these relationships, considered in
their totality, are represented by the
concept of a “society”.
The definitions included words like
“scientific”, “systematic” and
“objective” - ideas that tell us
something about how sociologists
study behaviour and the kinds of
knowledge they are trying to produce to
explain such behaviour.
The focus of attention is group
behaviour – how the groups people
join or are born into (family, work,
education and so forth) affect their
development and behaviour.
Sociologists create knowledge that is
factual, rather than simply based on
opinion. Systematic ways of studying
social behaviour are used sociologists test their ideas about
social behaviour using evidence drawn
from their observations.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
“Sociology is a social science concerned with the
study of social relationships and the various ways
these relationships are patterned in terms of our
membership of social groups”.
This being the case, we
need to look a little more
closely at the concepts of
social groups in order to
understand how the
relationships we form
shape our behaviour…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
A Friendship Group
Includes people who hang around
together because they like each other
A Work Group
A “social group” is a collection of
individuals who interact – both formally
and informally – with each other.
Might include people who do
the same type of job.
A Peer Group
Includes people of
roughly the same age
An Educational Group
Might include people studying
together in the same school /
college or class.
A Family Group
People who are related
by birth, marriage, etc.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Social Groups…
Structure
Our relationships are
based on (or
structured by) both
formal and informal
rules. “Society”
therefore, represents
a totality of
relationships that
imposes rules upon
our behaviour.
Institutions are stable
patterns of group
behaviour that persist
over long periods of time
Society
The largest group
to which we
usually belong…
Institutions
Small Groups
Individuals
Action
Groups, such as
families, peer
and friendship
groups, etc.
The main types of institutional groups in our society are:
Family and Kinship, Government, Work and cultural
institutions such as the media, education, and religion.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
One of the main things
sociologists investigate
are “social structures”
That is, the way our individual
lives are built around social
relationships and the rules we
have developed to govern such
relationships.
Sociologists argue that our individual choices of behaviour are
shaped by the relationships we form (or have imposed on us).
In the following screens, therefore, we need to investigate
some of the ways our behaviour is constrained, formally
and informally, by social structures…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
Society
• Language…
• Laws
The Media
• Lifestyle
• Advertising
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
School
• Respect for authority
• What you are taught
Your Family
• Right and wrong behaviour
• Language
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
Your Peers
• Fashion
• Gender behaviour
Your Friends
• Self-perception
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
If Sociology is the study of social
relationships and the way in which our
lives are structured by rules, it follows that
the initial answer to the question
“What is Sociology?”
is that it is the study of Social Order…
In other words, Sociology explains how order is:
 Created
 Maintained
 Reproduced
This being the case, the next step is to
examine these ideas, beginning with the
concept of culture…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
The End?
The next Presentation examines
Culture and Identity
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Sociology 11
Sociology 11
Mr. Bausback
Class Notes
Chapter 1&2
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
It’s going to be
complicated –
I’ll never
understand it…
A word to strike fear
into the hearts of
Sociology teachers
and students alike…
“Theory!”
It’s complicated –
how can I teach it so
they’ll grasp it?
However, as with
everything in life, theory is
as complicated as you
want to make it.
And besides – (sociological)
theory is Important.
And as with most things, if you
understand the basics, it’s
much easier to grasp the
harder bits…
If we grasp the theory behind
something, everything else is
much easier to understand…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
A suggested
explanation for
something…
A systematic and
general attempt to
explain something…
“Why do people
commit crimes?
“How does the
media affect us?”
“Why do some
people believe in
God?”
“Theory”
“Why do people
get married?”
“Why do kids play
truant from school?”
“How is our identity
shaped by culture?”
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
…is something we
use all the time in our
everyday life
“Theory”
We all use theory to
construct explanations
about the social world in
which we live…
Which, in a way, is
what Sociologists
also try to do…
In a slightly
different way,
of course…
“Why do I feel
unwell?”
“Why are my
friends behaving
oddly?”
“Why do I have to go
to school?”
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Comes in a
variety of shapes
and sizes…
Sociological Theory
High-Level Theories
Focus on trying to explain how
and why society is ordered
Functionalism…
Marxism…
Interactionism…
Mid-Range Theories
Focus on trying to explain
some general aspect of
social behaviour
Low-Level Theories
Feminism…
Why do girls
achieve higher
educational
qualifications
than boys?
Focus on trying to explain a
specific aspect of social
behaviour.
Why do I always fall
asleep in Psychology
lessons?
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
This is because Midrange and Low-level
theories are often
based on the
principles
underpinning Highlevel theories.
If you understand the basic
principles of High-level
theories you will find it
easier to understand other
types of theory.
High level theories are usually
known by their more-common
label of “Sociological
Perspectives”
A “perspective”, for our
current purposes, is
simply a way of looking at
and understanding the
social world.
Different sociologists, working within
different perspectives, construct different
theories about the nature of that world…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
The following slides are designed to
help you understand the basic
themes / principles of a range of
sociological perspectives
Sociological Perspectives…
They do this
by using
analogies…
In other words, they help you to
decide “what society is like” (from
different sociological perspectives) by
asking you to compare “society” to
something familiar…
Part of your task in the following
screens, therefore, is to use a variety
of different analogies to develop a
picture of how the concept of “society”
is seen and explained by different
sociological perspectives…
OCR Module: 2537
Functionalism…
Theory and Methods
“Society Is Like”: A Human Body
Characteristics of human body…
Each part of the body works in
harmony with all other parts
Characteristics of society…
Each part of society works in
harmony with all other parts
OCR Module: 2537
Marxism…
Theory and Methods
“Society Is Like”: A League Table
Characteristics of league table…
A league is characterised by
competition between teams
Characteristics of society…
Society involves competition
between social groups / classes
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Interactionism…
“Society Is Like”: A Play
Characteristics of a play…
A play has actors who play their
individual roles
Characteristics of society…
Society consists of individual
actors who play a variety of
roles
OCR Module: 2537
Feminism…
Theory and Methods
“Society Is Like”: A League Table
Characteristics of league table…
A league is characterised by
competition between teams
Characteristics of society…
Society involves competition
between men and women
OCR Module: 2537
Post-Modernism…
Theory and Methods
“Society Is Like”: A Theme Park
Characteristics of theme park…
A theme park has numerous
different rides
Characteristics of society…
Society is characterised by a
multiplicity of choices (work,
education, leisure, etc.)
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
“...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN
SOCIETY ”
SYSTEMATIC
SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT FOCUSES
ATTENTION ON PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR
HUMAN SOCIETY
GROUP BEHAVIOR IS PRIMARY FOCUS; HOW
GROUPS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUALS AND
VICE VERSA
AT THE “HEART OF SOCIOLOGY”
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE WHICH
OFFERS A UNIQUE VIEW OF SOCIETY
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS
WELL-ROUNDED AS A PERSON
SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS
MORE APPRECIATION FOR DIVERSITY
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE
DOMESTIC SOCIAL MARGINALITY
ENHANCED LIFE CHANCES
MICRO AND MACRO UNDERSTANDING
INCREASE SOCIAL POTENTIALS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
OCR Module: 2537
OTHER WAYS SOCIOLOGY
ALLOWS US TO SEE ANEW
Theory and Methods
ADVANTAGES OF A SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL MARGINALITY
ALLOWS US TO NOTICE DIVERSITY IN AMERICA
SOCIOLOGY DRAWS ATTENTION TO SOCIAL
CRISIS
IMPORTANCE OF THESE ITEMS
THEY ALLOW US TO SEE THE CONNECTION
BETWEEN MICRO AND MACRO SOCIAL
ELEMENTS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
GLOBAL LINKAGE
SOCIOLOGY OFFERS STUDENTS THE
OPPORTUNITY TO UNDERSTAND THE GLOBAL
VILLAGE
ALL SOCIETIES ARE INCREASINGLY CONNECTED
THROUGH TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
INTERDEPENDENCY OF NATIONS
MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY AMERICANS
ARE MORE SERIOUS ELSEWHERE
MORE AWARENESS
UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL ISSUES AND THE WORLD
AROUND AMERICA ALLOWS STUDENTS TO BETTER
UNDERSTAND THEMSELVES
FEWER ETHNOCENTRIC TENDENCIES
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
The Sociological Perspective
OBSERVATIONS ARE CERTAINLY
IMPACTED BY THE PERSONAL
PERSPECTIVES THROUGH WHICH
PEOPLE COME TO VIEW THE WORLD
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
THE SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE:
PETER BERGER
SEE THE GENERAL IN THE PARTICULAR
GENERAL SOCIAL PATTERNS IN THE BEHAVIOR
OF PARTICULAR INDIVIDUALS
INDIVIDUALS ARE UNIQUE…BUT
SOCIETY’S SOCIAL FORCES SHAPE US INTO
“KINDS” OF PEOPLE
CONSIDER THESE
PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO KILL THEMSELVES
PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO GO TO AND SUCCEED IN
COLLEGE AND ENJOY A FAVORABLE QUALITY OF
LIFE
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
Seeing the General in the Particular
RATE OF DEATH BY SUICIDE
20
18
20
WHAT SOCIAL FORCES ARE
AT WORK HERE?
18
16
16
14
14
12
12
10
10
20.2
8
8
6
10.9
4
6.2
2
4
2
4.9
1.9
0
6
12.4
0
African Americans
Whites
By Race and Sex PER 100,000 PERSONS
Males
Both Sexes
Females
U.S. Bureau of the Census
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
DURKHEIM’S STUDY OF SUICIDE
MORE LIKELY TO COMMIT
MALE PROTESTANTS WHO WERE WEALTHY AND
UNMARRIED HAD HIGHER SUICIDE RATES
PROTESTANTISM AND INDIVDUALISM
LESS LIKELY TO COMMIT
MALE JEWS AND CATHOLICS WHO WERE POOR AND
MARRIED
BEING CATHOLIC AND GROUP-ORIENTATION
ONE OF THE BASIC FINDINGS: WHY?
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE GROUPS HAD TO
DO WITH “SOCIAL INTEGRATION”
THOSE WITH STRONG SOCIAL TIES HAD LESS OF A CHANCE
OF COMMITING SUICIDE
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
COLLEGE BOUND?
A COLLEGE DEGREE IS THE
KEY TO SUCCESS IN AMERICA
WHAT IS IT ABOUT SOCIETY THAT
MAKES THESE PEOPLE MORE
OR LESS LIKELY TO
EXPERIENCE A COLLEGE
EDUCATION?
BLACKS: 60 PERCENT
HISPANICS: 66 PERCENT
WHITES: 68 PERCENT
ONLY PART OF THE STORY…
COLLEGE DROPOUT RATES ARE
VERY HIGH AMONGST BLACKS AND
HISPANICS
OCR Module: 2537
SEEING THE STRANGE IN THE FAMILIAR
Theory and Methods
PETER BERGER:
“THINGS AREN’T ALWAYS WHAT THEY SEEM”
SOCIOLOGY ASKS STUDENTS TO:
GIVE UP FAMILIAR ASSUMPTIONS
KNOW THAT SOCIETY INFLUENCES
PEOPLE BY GUIDING THOUGHTS AND
BEHAVIORS
ANY DOUBTS???
TO WHAT REAL EXTENT DID YOUR OWN
“FREE WILL” ENTER INTO YOUR
DECISION TO ATTEND COLLEGE?
WHAT ABOUT EXTERNAL SOCIAL FORCES?
OCR Module: 2537
EXTERNAL FORCES SIT RIGHT ON
TOP OF US!!!
Theory and Methods
SOCIETY
& NORMS
COMMUNITY
DYADS
REWARDS &
PUNISHMENTS
GROUPS
ORGANIZATIONS
AND NORMS
NORMS
NORMS
SOCIAL
EXPECTATIONS
NORMS
SOCIETY
& NORMS
OCR Module: 2537
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION
Theory and Methods
C. WRIGHT MILLS’ SOCIOLOGICAL
IMAGINATION
SOCIETY IS OFTEN RESPONSIBLE FOR MANY
OF OUR PROBLEMS
WE NEED TO LEARN TO SEPARATE THINGS
THAT HAVE TO DO WITH
PERSONAL TROUBLES, OR BIOGRAPHY
SOCIAL ISSUES, OR HISTORY
EXAMPLES:
WOMEN’S OPPORTUNITIES AT THE TURN OF
THE CENTURY AND THESE DAYS
LIFESTYLES OF THOSE WE LABEL DISABLED
IN THE 1950’S AND NOW
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
THINK IN TERMS OF FAMILY,
THE ECONOMY, RELIGION, THE
LEGAL SYSTEM, AND SCHOOL
THINK IN TERMS OF LAWS,
VALUES, NORMS, TRADITIONS,
SOCIAL EXPECATIONS, ROLES,
STATUSES, AND BELIEF
SYSTEMS.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE
TO SEE THE CONNECTION
BETWEEN BIOGRAPHY AND
HISTORY!
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
THE DISCIPLINE’S ORIGINS
SOCIOLOGY SPRANG FROM THREE SEPARATE,
YET INTERDEPENDENT REVOLUTIONS
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
A BELIEF IN SCIENCE BEGAN TO REPLACE
TRADITIONAL FORMS OF AUTHORITY
THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTION
INDUSTRIALISM AND CAPITALISM WERE
CHANGING ECONOMIC PATTERNS
THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION
MORE DEMOCRATIC VALUES AND STANDARDS
WERE BEING ADOPTED
OCR Module: 2537
AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
PERSONALITIES
Theory and Methods
POSITIVISM; LAW OF THREE
STAGES; THE “TWIN PILLARS”
KARL MARX (1818-1883)
CLASS CONFLICT/STRUGGLE
HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)
SOCIAL DARWINISM
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
GROUP FORCES; SOCIAL
SOLIDARITY
W.E.B. DU BOIS (1868-1963)
PLIGHT OF AFRICAN AMERICANS
OCR Module: 2537
WOMEN IN SOCIOLOGY
Theory and Methods
HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)
TRANSLATED THE WORKS OF AUGUSTE
COMTE
FOCUSED ON ISSUES SURROUNDING
WOMEN’S RIGHTS
SLAVERY
THE WORKPLACE AND FACTORY LAWS
JANE ADDAMS (1860-1933)
SOCIAL WORKER
DEVELOPED PLAN TO HELP IMMIGRANTS
NEW TO CITY LIFE IN AMERICA
HULL HOUSE IN CHICAGO
NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNER, 1931
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
SOCIAL PARADIGMS
THEORY: A STATEMENT OF HOW AND WHY
FACTS ARE RELATED
PARADIGM: A SET OF FUNDAMENTAL
ASSUMPTIONS THAT GUIDES THINKING
PEOPLE HOLD DIFFERING
OPINIONS ABOUT THEIR
SOCIAL WORLD
WE ALL COME FROM
DIFFERENT SOCIAL
EXPERIENCES AND THEY
BIAS OUR ASSUMPTIONS
OCR Module: 2537
STRUCTURAL -FUNCTIONALISM
Theory and Methods
THE BASICS
A MACRO-ORIENTED (LARGE-SCALE) PARADIGM
VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX SYSTEM WITH MANY
INTERDEPENDENT PARTS
THE PARTS WORK TOGETHER TO PROMOTE SOCIAL STABILITY
AND ORDER
MAJOR CHANGES TO THE SYSTEM’S PARTS IS NOT REQUIRED OR
DESIRED; SYSTEM SEEKS TO MAINTAIN IT EQUILIBRIUM
KEY ELEMENTS:
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
REFERS TO RELATIVELY STABLE PATTERNS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
FOUIND IN SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
SOCIAL FUNCTION
REFERS TO THE CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL PATTERNS FOR SOCIETY
THE WORK OF ROBERT K. MERTON ON SOCIAL FUNCTION
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
THE BASICS:
A MACRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM
VIEWS SOCIETY AS A STRUCTURED SYSTEM
BASED ON INEQUALITY
SOCIAL CONFLICT BETWEEN GROUPS OVER
SCARCE RESOURCES IS THE NORM
KEY ELEMENTS:
SOCIETY IS STRUCTURED IN WAYS TO
BENEFIT A FEW AT THE EXPENSE OF THE
MAJORITY
FACTORS SUCH AS RACE, SEX, CLASS, AND
AGE ARE LINKED TO SOCIAL INEQUALITY
DOMINANT GROUP VS. MINORITY GROUP
RELATIONS
INCOMPATIBLE INTERESTS AND MAJOR
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
THE CONFLICT
PARADIGM
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and Methods
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION IS A MICRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM,
WHICH MEANS IT IS EFFECTIVELY USED WHEN ATTEMPTING
TO UNDERSTAND SMALLER-SCALE SOCIAL PHENOMENA
THE BASICS:
THE VIEW THAT SOCIETY IS THE PRODUCT
OF EVERYDAY INTERACTIONS
PRINCIPLES:
SOCIETY IS A COMPLEX MOSAIC OF
UNDERSTANDING THAT EMERGES FROM
THE VERY PROCESS OF INTERACTING
GOFFMAN’S DRAMATURGICAL ANALSYIS
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY
OCR Module: 2537
BURGER AND LUCKMANN’S IDEAS
Theory and Methods
THINK OF LANGUAGE AS A CONSTANT PROCESS
THAT INVOLVES
EXTERNALIZATION
CREATION OF INSTITUTIONS AND RULES THAT GOVERN
INTERACTION
OBJECTIFICATION
PEOPLE BEGIN TO SEE SUCH ARRANGEMENTS AS DO NOT
HAVE A HUMAN CONNECTION - REIFICATION
INTERNALIZATION
WE INTERNALIZE A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED REALITY AS
WE LEARN TO ADAPT TO SOCIETY ON OUR WAY TO
BECOMING A “NORMAL HUMAN”
EXAMPLE: THE PROCESS BY WHICH A
TECHNICAL COLLEGE IS TRANSFORMED INTO
A COMPREHENSIVE COMMUNITY COLLEGE
OCR Module: 2537