The Groundwork of the
Metaphysics of Morals
Immanuel Kant
The Will
• Only thing that is intrinsically good
• All other goods depend on the good will
• For example, political power
– Good Will – Good ruler
– Bad Will – Bad Ruler
• The Will determines how good the other good
(i.e. political power)
What is a Good Will?
• Free, rational will that acts in accordance with
duty and not pleasure/desire.
What Makes a Human Being?
• The ability to act in accordance with moral obligation
• We are not designed for acting in accordance to
happiness, but to morality
• Nature has created us to be reasonable, and so we
must act in accordance to this reason rather than
happiness
• We will see this in one of his four examples (neglect
of talents)
Moral Actions
• Moral actions only have worth if done according
to duty
• You cannot act for any other intention (i.e.
desire/pleasure)
– For example, cheating
A. Do you act because of a duty to uphold the morality
of integrity?
B. Or, do you act out of fear of getting caught and
punished?
• You MUST act according to A and never B
Freedom
• We are truly free when we act according to
duty
• Our desires enslave us
• Reason frees us from this enslavement
• Only actions done according to duty have
moral worth, since they are based on reason
(i.e. freely chosen without bias from desire)
Moral Duty
• Universal
– Applies to ALL rational beings
– Distinguishes duties from preferences
• Categorical
– All MORAL imperatives (commands) are
categorical
Hypothetical Imperatives
• Conditional
– Based on a desired outcome
– For example:
• Desired outcome is to be a good doctor
• Imperative would be to go to a good medical school
• Going to medical school is dependant on your desired
outcome
• It is not a duty
• i.e., You do not NEED to go to medical school. You
could go to law school
Categorical Imperative
• Unconditional
– You ought to act regardless of context
– Morality never commands from desire (i.e. desired
outcome)
– Duty is unchanging
– Morality needs to be based on duty
• Moral commands can be immediately
identified
– Observe the act based on categorical form
Maxims
• Every action that is morally ratable (CI) is
freely willed
• Freely chosen acts are physical manifestations
of our intentions
• Intentions are representative of principles
– These principles are maxims
• Action
Maxims Cont
– Stealing
– What is the Maxim (i.e. principle) you protrude?
• Whenever I want what I cannot afford, I will steal it.
• We can only control this Maxim of ours
• Only element (i.e. intent) under our control
• Outcomes are out of our control
– Determined in large part to circumstance of context
• Must only act morally on what we can control
Example
• Nazi Soldier
• You agree to hide a Jewish man running from
Nazi
• Nazi asks if you know where Jewish man is
• According to Maxim (I can never falsify
information) must be obeyed.
• You can only control YOUR principles
• You CANNOT control the Nazi’s principles
• You have acted morally according to duty; Nazi
has acted immorally according to desire
Kant’s Supreme Moral Principle
• Categorical Imperative – “Act only in
accordance with that maxim through which
you can at the same time will it to be a
universal law.”
• Everyone must be able to imitate your act at
all times
– If not, immoral
Categorical Imperative
• Must be able to apply it without violating
rationality and reason
• Shows four examples of this
Example 1
• Suicide
• Maxim – From self-love I adopt it as a
principle to shorten my life when its longer
duration is likely to bring more evil than
satisfaction.”
• Violates rationality
– You cannot use self love as an excuse to kill
yourself since self love is also the very reason why
you try to improve and continue your life.
Example 2
• Borrow money under false pretenses
• Maxim – When I think myself in want of
money, I will borrow money and promise to
repay it, although I know I never can do so.
• Violates rationality
– No statement would be believed, and no one
would be able to borrow money since no lender
would ever think people are telling the truth.
Example 3
• Neglect of talents
• Maxim – (Never explicitly stated) – I can
neglect natural gifts in favor of indulgences
• Violates Rationality
– Nature gives talents as part of the law of nature,
so man must cultivate out of duty what nature has
given them.
Example 4
• Charity
• Maxim – (NES) Whenever I see someone in
need, I will refuse to help them even if I have
the physical means to do so
• Violates Rationality
– When you want help, you will have created a
world incapable of helping you
Kingdom of Ends
• Moral Universe
• We create the moral universe through our
actions in accordance to duty to moral law
• Ask yourself “What kind of world am I willing
when I act?”
• Must create the moral universe
• Combined collection of everyone’s actions
Kingdom of Ends, Cont.
• In this universe, all rational beings are equal
and sovereign
• Equal due to our ability to act in accordance to
the moral duty with our reason
• We make equal contributions to the moral
universe
• Sovereign since each of us is a creator of this
universe
Kingdom of Ends
• Through KOE, we come to know that all
rational beings must be treated not as a
means, but always as an end
• To treat them as a means denies them their
role as equal authors of the moral universe
Groundwork Focus Questions
1. How would Rand react to Kant’s assertion
that our desires enslave us? Do you agree
with Rand or Kant?
2. Discuss how Mill would address Kant’s ideas
about duty?
3. To what extent should the pragmatic
application of the Supreme Moral Duty
influence our moral decisions?
Fin