Chapter Five
Critical Perspectives on
Theory Development
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Initial Distinction
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Though post-positivists and
interpretive theorists differ in many
ways, both hold the general goal of
representing aspects of the social
world
In contrast, critical theorists want to
move beyond representation to be
active agents of reform and change
Critical Theory: An
overview
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Key issues/terms:
– Power (social), subordination
– Empowerment, resistance
– Liberation
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“Theories”: Multi-method, different
ontologies & epistemologies
– Marxism
– Feminism
– Cultural Studies
– Postmodernism
Overview
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In sum, not all critical theorists feel
the same about:
– How power is defined or held
– Whether pop culture is worthwhile of
study
– How “radical” research politics should be
– What constitutes reality or knowledge
– How research should be done (and what
counts as data
Historical Roots:
The Influence of Marxism
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Early work of Karl Marx influenced by
Hegel
Saw the external world as humanly
created, then reified and seen as
objective
This process of objectification and
reification serves as a source of
alienation for the individual
Marxism (cont’d)
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Georg Wilhelm Hegel:
– Hegel’s dialectic
Outside World
Individual
Experience
Marxism (cont’d)
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Karl Marx:
– Marx’s dialectic
Synthesis
Thesis
Antithesis
Marxism (cont’d)
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Karl Marx:
– Dialectical Materialism
Synthesis
Synthesis
Thesis
Thesis
Antithesis
Antithesis
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Karl Marx:
– Alienation
– Objectification and reification of
social world (idealism)
– Dialectical materialism: Historical
progress (realism)
– Means and modes of production
– 3 Cs: Capital, commodification,
cheap labor
– Haves (bourgeoisie) & have-nots
(proletariat)
– Base (substructure) &
superstructure
A summary of Marx
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The “later Marx” developed a more realist
view of the social world in a materialist
view of the social world
The economic substructure (modes and
means of production) is seen as
influencing superstructure factors such as
culture and politics
Substructure and superstructure are
sources of alienation and require critique
Historical Roots:
The Frankfurt School
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Founded in 1923
Based on Marxist ideology and critique
A journey of “revolutionary praxis”
that included the central concepts of
totality, consciousness, alienation, and
critique
Originally, scientific in focus, e.g., The
Authoritarian Personality (1950)
The Ontology of Critical
Theory
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Example: sociologist Anthony Giddens
Giddens distinguishes between ontology
of natural and physical world through
concept of double hermeneutic
The duality of structure: tension
between agency and structure in social
life
Duality of Structure (we’ve
been here before…
structure
Rules
Resources
agency
Behavior
Communication
Choice
Epistemology of Critical
Theory
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Example: Jürgen Habermas
Empirical-analytical and hermeneutichistorical cognitive interests
– Critical theory defined by critical-emancipatory
cognitive interest
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This cognitive interest emphasizes
– ideology
– Hegemony
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The goal of social science then is to…
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Ideology: “The taken for
granted assumptions about
reality that influence
perceptions and events”
(Deetz & Kersten, in Miller, p.
73)
Hegemony: “A process in
which a dominant group leads
another group to accept
subordination as the norm”—
”manufactured consent” (p.
73)
Axiology of Critical
Theory
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Emphasis on agency and power in
social life
Axiology of critical theory emphasizes
the emancipatory capacity of theory:
How is this different from other
approaches?
Habermas’ “ideal speech situation” and
“communication competence”: how
are they “critical”?
Three Approaches
Cultural Studies
 Postcolonialism
 Feminist studies
Describe:
 Main point/focus
 Key words
 How would they see the video?
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Hall’s Circuit of Culture: “The Whole
Way of LifeRepresentation:
The image
Identity:
People’s
association in
mind
Regulation:
Boycotts,
Government
control
Consumption:
Purchasing
Production:
Sweat shops
Critical Approaches
Today:
Cultural Studies
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Cultural studies scholars emphasize
the complex interweaving of various
cultural factors
A dominant minority can shape
cultural practices through economic
and political control
Control process is hegemonic--those
controlled are active participants in the
process
Critical Approaches Today:
Feminist Studies
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Gender (and Sex) as important defining
feature in social life
Gender defines how we think, behave, and
feel in a manner that is often invisible
The patriarchal nature of society can be
seen in all areas of social life: especially
important: division of labor
Feminist voices are not unitary--schools of
feminism include liberal, radical, standpoint,
and postmodern feminists