Animal Behavior (動物行為)
教科書：Wallace, R. A. (1997) Biology: the world of
life. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
鄭先祐 (Ayo)
國立臺南大學 環境生態研究所
Japalura@hotmail.com
Ethology and comparative psychology
 The modern study of behavior has taken
two distinct routes in this century -- one
European, one American.
Fig 24.1 Two of the
bounders of modern
ethology
(a) Konrad Lorenz
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 The European
approach was called
ethology. Its goal
was to understand
behavior by study its
cause, development,
evolution, and
function through the
observation of
animals in the wild,
or under somewhat
natural conditions.
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Fig 24.1 Two of the
bounders of modern
ethology
(b) Niko Tinbergen
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American approach
 The American approach was called
comparative psychology.
 Its goal was to understand behavior by
studying animals in the laboratory under
carefully controlled conditions.
 Its focus was learning, and its primary
animal was the Norway rat.
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The definition of Instincts (本能)
 The perception of something in the
environment (a releaser) triggers a
reaction in a center in the central
nervous system(the innate releasing
mechanism) that then cause the
performance of the instinctive act,
sometimes composed of very
stereotyped movements (fixed action
patterns).
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Fig. 24.2
 A male European robin in breeding
condition will attack a tuft of red feathers
(一叢紅色羽毛) placed in his territory.
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 Fig. 24.4 Simplified
diagram of how a fixed
action pattern can be
triggered. The releaser
is perceived by some
sort of receptor, which
triggers the IRM to
activate certain muscles,
thereby producing an
instinctive movement
that usually involves
fixed action patterns.
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 Fig. 24.3 The
scratching
movements
of dogs, as
well as many
other
vertebrates,
are
considered
fixed action
patterns.
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Learning (學習)
 Learning is a change in behavior,
based on experience.
Fig. 24.5 Chimpanzees are
highly social creatures that
live in a complex, variable,
and changing world.
Intelligence is important
under such circumstances.
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Essay 24.1
The advantage of forgetting
 Savants, a special class of
retardates(智力退化), have very low IQs,
but some are able to accomplish
incredible mathematical feats(技藝),
such as multiplying 2 five-figure
numbers in their heads.
 Others can immediately tell you the day
of the week on which Christmas day fell
in 1492 or any day in any year. (記憶)
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A mnemoist
 A mnemoist (a Russian profession)
would sometimes memorize lines of 50
words.
 Once, in just a few moments, he
memorized the nonsense formula
 Nd2(853/vx)(2762/n2v)(86x/273)(n2b)(rd)
=
sv (1625/322)(r2s5)
 Fifteen years later, upon request, he
repeated the entire formula without a
single mistake.
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Essay 24.1
 Why haven't been
selected for so
that by now we
can all, more or
less, perform
such feats?
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Habituation (習慣)
 Habituation is , in a sense, learning not to
respond to a stimulus.
 The first time an animal encounters a
stimulus, it may respond vigorously.
 But if the stimulus is presented over and
over without consequence, the response
to it gradually lessens and may finally
disappear altogether. (Fig. 24.6)
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Fig. 24.6 As animals become accustomed to a
stimulus, habituation may occur.
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Classical conditioning
(制約，情境化)
 Classical conditioning was first
described by the famed Russian
biologist Ivan Pavlov.
 The response to a normal stimulus
comes to be elicited by a substitute
stimulus.
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 Fig. 24.7 Upon presentation of a light,
meat powder would be blown into the
dog's mouth, causing it to salivate.
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Fig.24.7 (b) in the first graph that the dog salivated at
maximal levels after only eight trails. When the
experiment was reversed and food no longer followed
the light, the dog stopped salivating
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Operant conditioning
 In operant conditioning, the
reinforcement follows the behavioral
response. In other words, the animal
must do something.
 In the 1930s, psychologist B. F. Skinner
demonstrated operant conditioning by
employing a device now called a
Skinner box (Fig. 24.8)
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Fig. 24.8 (a) B. F. Skinner, one of the most
important twentieth-century psychologists.
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 Fig. 24.8 a
Skinner box,
which is used
to demonstrate
operant
conditioning.
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Skinner box
 An animal placed inside a Skinner box must
learn to press a small bar in order to receive
a pellet of food from an automatic dispenser.
 開始的時候是隨機動作，當觸動到按鈕，有
食物下來，動物開始學習到觸動按鈕有食物
下來的情境。動物就會常常去觸動。
 倘若每次觸動都會有，且非常的穩定。動物
會有愈來愈放心的現像。觸動頻率會減少。
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Operant conditioning
 倘若食物的供應轉變成不穩定，有時有，
但有時沒有。
 動物的心情似乎變成有點緊張。動物會
增加去觸動按鈕的頻率。
 甚至會隨時一再的觸動。沒有時間作其
它事情，譬如出外散步。
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Fig. 24.9 In classical conditioning, a desirable
commodity, such as food, comes to be
associated with an irrelevant signal.
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Fig. 24.9(b) In operant conditioning, the animal
can act when given a signal, but only one action
is rewarded.
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Fig. 24.10 Although young birds have the innate
ability to fly, they canAnimal
improve
with practice.
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Fig. 24.10(b) A younger bird crashes headfirst
into the ground.
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Imprinting (印痕)
 Critical period, a window of time when
the young are particularly sensitive to
certain aspects of their environment.
 At this time, the goslings, and the young
of many other species as well, learn the
traits of whatever is around them.
 Imprinting：the animal learns to make a
specific response to certain aspects of
its environment.
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 Fig. 24.11 Konrad
Lorenz leading a
group of goslings
(小鵝) that had
imprinted on him.
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Fig. 24.12 A crane
(鶴) imprinted on
humans.
The female
whooping crane
has been handreared and
therefore had
imprinted on
humans.
 She rejected the mate provided for her but could
be enticed to lay eggs (artificially fertilized) by
"dancing" with humans.
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Orientation and Navigation
 Orientation is simply facing in the right
direction
 navigation involves finding one's way
from point A to point B.
 這是隨季節遷移的動物必備的能力。
 於籠子內的候鳥於遷移季節到來時，會
顯現出不斷的向遷移方向衝擊的現像。
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Kramer experiments
 Kramer surmised that they were
orienting according to the position of the
sun.
 To test this idea, he blocked their view
of the sun and used mirrors to change
its apparent position.
 The birds oriented with respect to the
position of the new "sun".
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 Fig. 24.15
Kramer's
orientation
cage.
 The birds can
see only sky
through the
cage roof.
 The direction
of the sun can
be shifted with
mirrors.
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 Kramer put identical food boxes around
the cage, with food in only one of the
boxes.
 The boxes were stationary, and the one
containing food was always at the same
point of the compass.
 無論如何轉換位置，birds went directly to
the correct food box.
 但若是在陰天，the birds were
disoriented and had trouble locating their
food box.
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Biological clock
 If the artificial sun remained stationary,
the birds would shift their direction with
respect to it at a rate of about 15
degrees per hour, the sun's rate of
movement across the sky.
 This meant that some sort of biological
clock was operating, and a very precise
clock at that.
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Essay 24.2 Biological clocks
 將倉鼠放在微亮的
暗室，讓其無法得
知日夜運行。
 但倉鼠仍就會在夜
晚的時間，出來運
動。
 觀察多日，每日情
況都一樣。
 Circadian rhythms
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調整周期
 Although biological rhythms continue
without environmental cues, they are
not completely independent of such
cues.
 Light-dark cycle will set, or entrain, the
rhythm so that its period length matches
that of the environment.
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Fig. 24.14 A pigeon with electrical coils on its
head. Pigeons can detect slight magnetic fields
and that magnetism can influence their
orientation.
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Social Behavior
 The famous student of
animal behavior, Jane
Goodall (Fig. 24.15),
who has spent much
of her life among the
chimpanzees of East
Africa's Gombe
Stream Preserve.
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 Fig. 24.16 Fighting can be a dangerous
activity among some species.
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Fig. 24.17 (a) a goldenfronted woodpecker
 (b) a red-
bellied
woodpecker
兩種很相近，但相互並不 interbreed
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Fig. 24.18 a
raccoon
approached a
hare in the
darkness and
the hare
leaped over
the raccoon .
 They may have known each other.
There is evidence that animals of
different species that share the same
area may react to each other
individually.
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Fig. 24.19 Male
rattlesnakes fighting.
Each could kill the
other, yet they do
not bite.
 The fight is more a test of will and
strength as the snakes press against
each other, belly to belly.
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 Fig. 24.20 Hyenas may kill any stranger
they find on their territory.
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 Fig. 24.21 Porpoises are intelligent creatures
that often cooperate. Here a young porpoise
swims beneath its mother.
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 Fig. 24.22 Musk oxen live above the Arctic cycle
and are preyed upon by wolves. If attacked, they
immediately form a circle with the adults facing
outward and calves inside.
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 Fig. 24.23 Wolves often cooperate to
bring down prey, but then the dominant
individuals feed first.
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 Fig. 24.24 Leaf cutter ants of the tropics carefully
excise section of leaves, which they then take to the
colony where the plant material is used to grow
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fungi on which the ants Animal
feed.
Altruism
 An activity that
benefits another
organism at the
individual's own
expense.
 It seems to be
common among
animals.
 How did it evolve?
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Fig. 24.25 救難犬
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 Fig. 24.26
 Kin selection is
the process by
which an
individual
increases its
kinds of genes
in the
population by
helping
relatives.
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←
Since they
show altruistic
behavior to
each other's
offspring, more
offspring from
each population
survive.
 ↑Since they do not show altruistic behavior to
each other's offspring, fewer offspring from
each population survive.
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 Fig. 24.28 A male baboon will sometimes
threaten a predator, thereby placing himself
at risk for the sake of the group.
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Essay 24.3
How to recognize kin
 (1) an animal comes to recognize those
individuals it grew up with and to treat
them as if they were related.
 (2) through maternal "labeling".
 (3) through "genetic markers".
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Reciprocal altruism
 Reciprocal altruism is selfless behavior
that is extended when it is likely that the
favor will be returned.
 Reciprocal altruism would be expected
in those groups that are highly social
and relatively intelligent and their
behavior can be remembered.
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 Fig. 24.29 In a
formalized
reciprocal
altruism, society
at large pays a
small cost in
order to offer help.
 Here, relief is
distributed to
hurricane victims
at public expense.
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問題與討論
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