THE BEHEMOTH AND THE
CYBORG
--SCIENTISTS AND CONTESTED
TECHNOLOGY
Craig K. Harris
Food Safety Policy Center
Department of Sociology
Michigan State University
Anheuser Busch Brewing Company
Anheuser-Busch was
founded by immigrants
searching for their
American dream. In
1864, Adolphus Busch
joined his father-in-law,
Eberhard Anheuser, in
guiding our company
confidently into the
future. For five
generations, the Busch
family and our
employees have made
Anheuser-Busch the
premier brewer in the
world.
Anheuser Busch Brewing Company
Attempting to replicate the beers of
their native Bavaria, Anheuser and
Busch seek out suppliers of quality
grains – wheat, rice – and hops in the
area around St. Louis.
To grow for Anheuser-Busch is a mark
of distinction among farmers in
Missouri and Arkansas.
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
• Less than 25 percent of energy used in
agriculture comes from fossil fuels
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
• Less than 25 percent of energy used in
agriculture comes from fossil fuels
• Most of water is rainfed
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
• Less than 25 percent of energy used in
agriculture comes from fossil fuels
• Most of water is rainfed
• Pollination
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
• Less than 25 percent of energy used in
agriculture comes from fossil fuels
• Most of water is rainfed
• Pollination
• Biological nitrogen fixation
THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA
• Agriculture is the sector of the economy
that derives the greatest benefit from
ecosystem services
• Less than 25 percent of energy used in
agriculture comes from fossil fuels
• Most of water is rainfed
• Pollination
• Biological nitrogen fixation
• Beneficials contribute to pest management
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
• Main marketing problems are
overproduction and oligopsonistic markets
 lower prices
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
• Main marketing problems are
overproduction and oligopsonistic markets
 lower prices
• Farmers respond to lower prices by trying to
increase production
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
• Main marketing problems are
overproduction and oligopsonistic markets
 lower prices
• Farmers respond to lower prices by trying to
increase production
• Government responds to lower prices by
programs of price supports and acreage setasides for corn, soybeans, rice, cotton,
sugar, and tobacco
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
• Main marketing problems are
overproduction and oligopsonistic markets
 lower prices
• Farmers respond to lower prices by trying to
increase production
• Government responds to lower prices with
price supports and acreage set-asides
• Main production problems are insect pests
and weeds
THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED
• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans
• Main marketing problems are
overproduction and oligopsonistic markets
 lower prices
• Farmers respond to lower prices by trying to
increase production
• Government responds to lower prices with
price supports and acreage set-asides
• Main production problems are insect pests
and weeds
• Both insecticides and herbicides have
environmental and human health issues
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED - 2
• 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) –
aggregate and cumulative effects, especially
to most susceptible subpopulations
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED - 2
• 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) –
aggregate and cumulative effects, especially
to most susceptible subpopulations
• Even low residues on staple crops can be
hazardous
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED - 2
• 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) –
aggregate and cumulative effects, especially
to most susceptible subpopulations
• Even low residues on staple crops can be
hazardous
• Organic corn and soybean yields approach
conventional yields
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED - 2
• 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) –
aggregate and cumulative effects, especially
to most susceptible subpopulations
• Even low residues on staple crops can be
hazardous
• Organic corn and soybean yields approach
conventional yields
• One of main organic insecticides is the toxin
produced by a common microbe, Bacillus
thuringensis (Bt)
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED
• Recombinant genetic technologies
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED
• Recombinant genetic technologies
• Identification of toxin gene in Bacillus
thuringensis (Bt)
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED
• Recombinant genetic technologies
• Identification of toxin gene in Bacillus
thuringensis (Bt)
• Bt corn and Bt cotton
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED
• Recombinant genetic technologies
• Identification of toxin gene in Bacillus
thuringensis (Bt)
• Bt corn and Bt cotton
• Substantial equivalence
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2
• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated
protectorant
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2
• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated
protectorant
• Better for environment . . . Natural . . . Same
as organic
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2
• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated
protectorant
• Better for environment . . . Natural . . . Same
as organic
• Hazardous to neutral and beneficial insects
– The monarch butterfly controversy
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2
• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated
protectorant
• Better for environment . . . Natural . . . Same
as organic
• Hazardous to neutral and beneficial insects
– The monarch butterfly controversy
• Possible tumorigenicity
– Arpad Pustzai
CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2
• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated
protectorant
• Better for environment . . . Natural . . . Same
as organic
• Hazardous to neutral and beneficial insects
– The monarch butterfly controversy
• Possible tumorigenicity
– Arpad Pustzai
• Resistance concerns
– Mandatory refugia
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
• Increasing opposition to U.S. government
support for tobacco
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
• Increasing opposition to U.S. government
support for tobacco
• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for
export crops
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
• Increasing opposition to U.S. government
support for tobacco
• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for
export crops
• Fiscal crisis of the state increasingly
diminish ability to support subsidies
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
• Increasing opposition to U.S. government
support for tobacco
• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for
export crops Fiscal crisis of the state
increasingly diminish ability to support
subsidies
• Relative ease of transforming tobacco via
recombinant DNA techniques
CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN
• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.
• Increasing opposition to U.S. government
support for tobacco
• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for
export crops Fiscal crisis of the state
increasingly diminish ability to support
subsidies
• Relative ease of transforming tobacco via
recombinant DNA techniques
• Look for new uses for land, machinery, and
skills
THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY
• By 2000, Northwest
Missouri State
University was
experiencing the fiscal
crisis of the state
THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY
• By 2000, Northwest Missouri
State University was
experiencing the fiscal crisis
of the state
• “In the 1980s, more than 70
percent of the University's
operating budget income
was derived from state
appropriations. Currently,
that figure hovers around 50
percent.”
THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY
• By 2000, Northwest Missouri
State University was
experiencing the fiscal crisis of
the state
• “In the 1980s, more than 70
percent of the University's
operating budget income was
derived from state
appropriations. Currently, that
figure hovers around 50
percent.”
• Not able to obtain funding for
new science building
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
• Develop process to synthesize the
substance
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
• Develop process to synthesize the
substance
• Testing and regulatory approvals
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
• Develop process to synthesize the
substance
• Testing and regulatory approvals
• Patent protection
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
• Develop process to synthesize the
substance
• Testing and regulatory approvals
• Patent protection
• After patent expires, open competition 
generics  low prices
THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE
• The pharmaceutical industry has a
somewhat distinctive product cycle
• Identify active substance that can be
marketed for some health problem
• Develop process to synthesize the
substance
• Testing and regulatory approvals
• Patent protection
• After patent expires, open competition 
generics  low prices
• Compete by lowering cost of production
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
• Main problem with glyphosate is
phytotoxicity to main crops (corn,
soybeans)  triazine herbicides  greater
human health hazards
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
• Main problem with glyphosate is
phytotoxicity to main crops (corn,
soybeans)  triazine herbicides  greater
human health hazards
• Discovery of tolerance gene
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
• Main problem with glyphosate is
phytotoxicity to main crops (corn,
soybeans)  triazine herbicides  greater
human health hazards
• Discovery of tolerance gene
• Discovery of recombinant techniques
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
• Main problem with glyphosate is
phytotoxicity to main crops (corn,
soybeans)  triazine herbicides  greater
human health hazards
• Discovery of tolerance gene
• Discovery of recombinant techniques
• Round-Up Ready corn and soybeans
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH
• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an
effort to maintain and extent proprietary
control over glyphosate herbicide
• Main problem with glyphosate is
phytotoxicity to main crops (corn,
soybeans)  triazine herbicides  greater
human health hazards
• Discovery of tolerance gene
• Discovery of recombinant techniques
• Round-Up Ready corn and soybeans
• Substantial equivalence
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
• Better for environment (lower toxicity and
lower persistence)
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
• Better for environment (lower toxicity and
lower persistence)
• Lower human health hazard
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
• Better for environment (lower toxicity and
lower persistence)
• Lower human health hazard
• Research challenges whether number of
sprays reduced
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
• Better for environment (lower toxicity and
lower persistence)
• Lower human health hazard
• Research challenges whether number of
sprays reduced
• Some evidence that glyphosate is a
carcinogen
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 2
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans
• Better for environment (lower toxicity and
lower persistence)
• Lower human health hazard
• Research challenges whether number of
sprays reduced
• Some evidence that glyphosate is a
carcinogen
• Perception that only the corporation
benefits
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 3
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans - continued
• Public opinion surveys – not accept risks of
new technology if only corporation benefits
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BEHEMOTH - 3
• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn
and soybeans - continued
• Public opinion surveys – not accept risks of
new technology if only corporation benefits
• Corporations look for second and third
generation technologies
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
• Transform rice to express Vitamin A
precursor – Golden rice
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
• Transform rice to express Vitamin A
precursor – Golden rice
• Donate genome to public health
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
• Transform rice to express Vitamin A
precursor – Golden rice
• Donate genome to public health
• Critics claim will be more expensive than
afflicted people can afford
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where
rice is a staple food have vision illnesses
because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
• Transform rice to express Vitamin A
precursor – Golden rice
• Donate genome to public health
• Critics claim will be more expensive than
afflicted people can afford
• Critics argue better remedy is to make leafy
greens more available and accessible
THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
BENEFACTOR
• People in Southeast Asian countries where rice is
a staple food have vision illnesses because of lack
of sufficient Vitamin A
• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene
• Transform rice to express Vitamin A precursor –
Golden rice
• Donate genome to public health
• Critics claim will be more expensive than afflicted
people can afford
• Critics argue better remedy is to make leafy
greens more available and accessible
• Critics claim danger of eating too much Vitamin A
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana
• Malaria is single largest cause of illness
worldwide
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana
• Malaria is single largest cause of illness
worldwide
• Malaria parasite is increasingly resistant to
existing drugs
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana
• Malaria is single largest cause of illness
worldwide
• Malaria parasite is increasingly resistant to
existing drugs
• Mosquito vector difficult to control without
DDT (broad spectrum and persistent, but
inexpensive) or less hazardous but more
expensive alternatives (permethrin sleeping
nets, Bt variants)
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana
• Malaria is single largest cause of illness
worldwide
• Malaria parasite is increasingly resistant to
existing drugs
• Mosquito vector difficult to control without
DDT or less hazardous but more expensive
alternatives
• Identification of gene construct that causes
production of antibodies that block action of
parasite
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana
• Malaria is single largest cause of illness
worldwide
• Malaria parasite is increasingly resistant to
existing drugs
• Mosquito vector difficult to control without
DDT or less hazardous but more expensive
alternatives
• Identification of gene construct that causes
production of antibodies that block action of
parasite
• Banana production overlaps malaria zone
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana - 2
• Arntzen propose to
transform banana to
deliver malaria vaccine
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana - 2
• Arntzen propose to
transform banana to
deliver malaria vaccine
• Look for donor to
support (e.g., Gates
Foundation)
Charles Arntzen and the Magic
Banana - 2
• Arntzen propose to
transform banana to
deliver malaria vaccine
• Look for donor to
support (e.g., Gates
Foundation)
• Concerns about
dosage and resistance
By 2002, the buzzword in the
biotechnology industry was
“pharming”
By 2002, the buzzword in the
biotechnology industry was
“pharming”
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2001
2002
2003
References to “biopharming” in major u.s. newspapers
2004
The Great Corn Controversy 2002
• Iowa state government adopts corn
biopharming as growth strategy
The Great Corn Controversy 2002
• Iowa state government adopts corn
biopharming as growth strategy
• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)
and other groups express concern
The Great Corn Controversy 2002
• Iowa state government adopts corn
biopharming as growth strategy
• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)
and other groups express concern
• USDA states lack of support for corn
biopharming as a matter of policy
The Great Corn Controversy 2002
• Iowa state government adopts corn
biopharming as growth strategy
• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)
and other groups express concern
• USDA states lack of support for corn
biopharming as a matter of policy
• Iowa representatives and politicians
pressure the Administration to reverse
policy
The Great Corn Controversy 2002
• Iowa state government adopts corn
biopharming as growth strategy
• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)
and other groups express concern
• USDA states lack of support for corn
biopharming as a matter of policy
• Iowa representatives and politicians
pressure the Administration to reverse
policy
• Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO)
agrees not to grow corn pharm crops in
Corn Belt
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
• Initially California Rice Commission
approves proposal for ten southern
counties where rice not currently grown
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
• Initially California Rice Commission
approves proposal for ten southern
counties where rice not currently grown
• Some rice growers willing to move to new
locations and grow high value crop
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
• Initially California Rice Commission
approves proposal for ten southern
counties where rice not currently grown
• Some rice growers willing to move to new
locations and grow high value crop
• Other rice growers oppose plan
– Genetic escape and contamination
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
• Initially California Rice Commission
approves proposal for ten southern
counties where rice not currently grown
• Some rice growers willing to move to new
locations and grow high value crop
• Other rice growers oppose plan
– Genetic escape and contamination
– Only a small number of growers will benefit
The California Rice Rebellion
• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to
grow pharmaceutical rice in California
• Initially California Rice Commission
approves proposal for ten southern
counties where rice not currently grown
• Some rice growers willing to move to new
locations and grow high value crop
• Other rice growers oppose plan
– Genetic escape and contamination
– Only a small number of growers will benefit
• Commissioner of Agriculture rejects plan
Bearcat Biopharming
• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State
University 22,000 square foot addition to
science building in return for use of
university farm fields
Bearcat Biopharming
• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State
University 22,000 square foot addition to
science building in return for use of
university farm fields
• Majority of rice growers in Missouri oppose
plan
Bearcat Biopharming
• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State
University 22,000 square foot addition to
science building in return for use of
university farm fields
• Majority of rice growers in Missouri oppose
plan
Bearcat Biopharming
• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State
University 22,000 square foot addition to
science building in return for use of
university farm fields
• Majority of rice growers in Missouri oppose
plan
• Anheuser Busch announces will not buy
rice grown in Missouri if biopharming rice is
approved
Bearcat Biopharming
• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State
University 22,000 square foot addition to
science building in return for use of
university farm fields
• Majority of Missouri rice growers oppose
plan
• Anheuser Busch announces will not buy
rice grown in Missouri if biopharming rice is
approved
• Ventria announces it will use existing
approvals to grow biopharm rice in North
Carolina
Farmaceuticals As Cyborgs
• More than neoclassical political economy
– Competition between different interests for
profit and power
– Accumulation of wealth by different capitals
Farmaceuticals As Cyborgs
• More than neoclassical political economy
– Competition between different interests for
profit and power
– Accumulation of wealth by different capitals
• More than regulationist theory or
conventions theory
– Which government agencies will regulate them
– What standards will be used to evaluate them
Farmaceuticals As Cyborgs
• Lack of clear classification opens space for
various sorts of activism
– Growers
– Agrifood NGO’s
Farmaceuticals As Cyborgs
• Lack of clear classification opens space for
various sorts of activism
• Lack of clear classification produces
division in biotechnology science
community