Scientific Argument & Explanation
Development:
Creating a Plan for Writing
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Scientific Argument
We produce arguments about questions or problems, not topics. Instruction involving argumentation asks students to
consider alternatives, evaluate evidence, and think critically... moving far beyond the memorization of lists of facts or
procedures.
Claim – Evidence - Reasoning
Claim:
A statement that answers a question (a conclusion)
Evidence:
That data or information that supports a claim
Reasoning:
The explanation of how and why the evidence supports the claim. In science,
reasoning needs to use science ideas to make these connections.
Counter-argument:
Recognizes and describes alternate explanations, and provides counterevidence and
reasoning for why the alternative explanation is not appropriate.
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Scientific Argument Tally Sheet
Teacher:
Date:
Class:
Description of writing assignment (What is the question the students are addressing?):
Instructional strategies leading up to this assignment (that focus on written arguments):
CLAIM
EVIDENCE
Appropriate and sufficient
qualitative or quantitative evidence
to support the claim
Clear reasoning that connects the
claim to the evidence
ORGANIZATION
COUNTER-ARGUMENTS
A clear claim
REASONING
2
Present and welldeveloped
1
Not yet
0
Not present
Counter-arguments are
acknowledged
Counter-arguments are refuted
Writing is clear and well organized
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Scientific Argument Rubric
Name:
Date:
Class:
Hour:
2
Present and
well-developed
1
Not yet
0
Not present
A clear claim
Appropriate and sufficient qualitative or quantitative evidence
to support the claim
Clear reasoning that connects the claim to the evidence
Counter-arguments are acknowledged
Counter-arguments are refuted
Writing is clear and well organized
Notes:
Scientific Argument Rubric
Name:
Date:
Class:
Hour:
2
Present and
well-developed
1
Not yet
0
Not present
A clear claim
Appropriate and sufficient qualitative or quantitative evidence
to support the claim
Clear reasoning that connects the claim to the evidence
Counter-arguments are acknowledged
Counter-arguments are refuted
Writing is clear and well organized
Notes:
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Data Reflection
Next steps to consider
January
December
November
October
September
What did the data show?
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Next steps to consider
June
May
April
March
February
What did the data show?
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Calendar Overview
M
M
T
September
W
T
November
W
December 15, 2014
Th
Th
F
F
M
M
T
October
W
Th
F
T
December
W
Th
F
8
M
M
T
January
W
T
March
W
December 15, 2014
Th
Th
F
F
M
M
T
February
W
Th
F
T
April
W
Th
F
9
M
T
December 15, 2014
May
W
Th
F
M
T
June
W
Th
F
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Introducing Argument in the Classroom: A Summary of Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategy
Page
Analyze Examples: Introduce complete argument models about basic content-based claims. Use good
examples and poor examples. Have students read them and identify the claim, evidence, reasoning, and
counter-argument. See if they can identify which one is the stronger argument, and help them verbalize how
they came to this conclusion. If necessary, deconstruct the models yourself with a think-aloud. You might
also extend this type of analysis to scoring the examples with a rubric.
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Multiple Choice Arguments: Provide students with several choices for each component of an argument.
Have them determine which choice works best and explain their thinking. This can work with small groups or
whole class discussion.
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Reconstructing Arguments: This is similar to a Multiple Choice Argument – only students are given sentence
strips that they have to arrange and identify the components (Claim, Evidence, Reasoning, Counterargument).
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Graphic Organizers and Writing Scaffolds: Provide graphic organizers that students can use to write their
own Claim, Evidence, Reasoning, and Counter-argument. Use explanations or questions as writing scaffolds
if needed.
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Focus on “Appropriate and Sufficient” Evidence: Provide a limited data set. Make a claim and work in small
groups with a whiteboard to list any evidence that supports it. What additional evidence would strengthen
the claim? How do you know when you’ve got enough? Discuss as a class.
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Focus on Evidence and Reasoning: Given a claim, provide evidence statements that may or may not support
the claim. Students determine which evidence statements support the claim and then write the reason that
evidence supports the claim.
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Focus on Counter-Arguments: When students are predicting answers to a question before an investigation,
ensure that students are listening carefully to all predictions. Have them write down their own prediction,
but also different predictions made by several classmates along with their reasons for their predictions.
Following the investigation, have students go back to their own predictions and the predictions of others –
any predictions that are not supported by the evidence can be used as counter-arguments.
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Analyze Examples
Are fat and soap the same substance?
For each of the following explanations, underline and label the claim, evidence, reasoning, and counter-argument.
Which explanation is the strongest? Why?
Explanation 1:
Fat and soap are both stuff, but they are different substances. Fat is used for cooking and soap is
used for washing. They are both things we use every day. The data table is my evidence that they
are different substances. Stuff can be different substances if you have the right data to show it.
Explanation 2:
Fat and soap are different substances. Fat is off-white and Ivory soap is milky white. Fat is squishy
and soft and soap is hard. Fat is soluble in oil, but soap is not soluble in oil. Soap is soluble in water,
but fat is not. Fat has a melting point of 47o C and soap has a melting point above 100oC. Fat has a
density of 0.92 g/cm3 and soap has a density of 0.84 g/cm3. These are all properties. Because fat and
soap have different properties, I know they are different substances. Different substances always
have different properties. Some people think that because fat is an ingredient in soap they are the
same thing, but there are other ingredients in soap that make it into a different substance with
different properties.
Explanation 3:
Fat and soap are different substances. Fat is off-white and Ivory soap is milky white. Fat is squishy
and soft and soap is hard. Fat is soluble in oil, but soap is not soluble in oil. Soap is soluble in water,
but fat is not. Fat has a melting point of 47o C and soap has a melting point above 100oC. Fat has a
density of 0.92 g/cm3 and soap has a density of 0.84 g/cm3. Because the color, hardness, solubility,
melting point, and density are different, I know they are different substances. Even though fat is an
ingredient in soap, they are different.
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“Analyze Examples” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
Explanation 1:
Explanation 2:
Explanation 3:
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Multiple Choice Arguments
Directions:
You have just finished testing how different variables (length of string and mass of bob) affect the period of a pendulum.
With your group, you need to create an argument that answers the following question: What design of a pendulum will
go the slowest? Circle the choices below that you think would create the strongest argument.
CLAIM
Circle ONE of the following.
A. Our pendulum went the slowest because we used the best materials.
B. The length of the pendulum will cause it to go slow or fast.
C. The longer the length of the pendulum string, the slower it will go.
EVIDENCE
Circle THREE of the following.
A. We built many pendulums and tested them by timing how long it took them to swing back and forth.
B. The pendulum that was 100 cm long took an average of 2.0 seconds to swing back and forth.
C. Real pendulums are used in grandfather clocks and are used to tell time.
D. We had a lot of fun building and testing our pendulum.
E. The pendulum that was 50 cm long took an average of 1.4 seconds to swing back and forth.
F. The pendulum that was 25 cm long took an average of 1.0 second to swing back and forth.
G. Our experiments showed that the pendulum that was the longest took the most time to swing back and forth.
REASONING
Circle ONE of the following.
A. Our data table shows how to build the slowest pendulum. We found that the longest pendulum went the
slowest compared to the other two pendulums.
B. Pendulums are used to make clocks because they swing so precisely. Gravity pulls on the pendulum and makes
it go back and forth.
C. The period of a pendulum is the time is takes to swing back and forth. The motion of the pendulum can be
𝐿
modeled with the equation 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔. This shows that the period of a pendulum is proportional to the square
root of the length of the pendulum, and so the longer the pendulum, the more time it took to swing back and
forth.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT
Circle ONE of the following.
A. The mass of the pendulum bob did not affect the period of the pendulum.
B. The mass of the pendulum bob did not affect the period of the pendulum. The period was about 2.0 seconds
with the 50g bob and also with the 100g bob. The force of gravity is what causes the pendulum to accelerate
back to its equilibrium position and the acceleration due to gravity is the same for all masses. Also, mass does
𝐿
not factor into the equation that models the motion of the pendulum, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔.
C. The mass of the pendulum bob did not affect the period of the pendulum. The period was about 2.0 seconds
with the 50g bob and also with the 100g bob.
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“Multiple Choice Arguments” Reflection
Would this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
QUESTION
CLAIM
Circle ONE of the following.
A.
B.
C.
EVIDENCE
Circle ___________ of the following.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
REASONING
Circle ONE of the following.
A.
B.
C.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT
Circle ONE of the following.
A.
B.
C.
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Reconstructing Arguments
Reconstruct an argument based on the following data table that answers the question, Does the size of an animal affect
their heart rate at rest? Identify the Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning.
Mammal
Resting Heart Rate
(beats per minute)
Human
75
Horse
48
Cow
45-60
Dog
90-100
Rat
120
Mouse
498
Claim
Evidence
Reasoning
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The size of a mammal does affect their heart rate at rest.
The size of a mammal dos not affect their heart rate at rest.
The horse has a resting heart rate of 48 beats per minute.
The dog has a resting heart rate of 90-100 beats per minutes.
The mouse has a resting heart rate of 498 beats per minute.
The human has a resting heart rate of 75 beats per minute.
The cow has a resting heart rate of 45-60 beats per minute.
From the data provided, the larger the mammal, the lower their heart rate at rest. The
smaller the mammal, the higher their heart rate at rest.
From the data provided, the heart rate at rest for animals of different sizes is similar. The
larger mammals and the smaller mammals had almost the same heart rate.
Therefore, the size of a mammal does not affect their heart rate at rest.
Therefore, the size of a mammal does affect their heart rate at rest.
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“Reconstructing Arguments” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
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Graphic Organizers and Writing Scaffolds
Graphic organizers can be used along with other writing scaffolds. Here are four examples using explanation scaffolds,
question scaffolds, sentence starter scaffolds, and just the graphic organizer without additional scaffolds.
What is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a simple circuit?
Current vs Resistance
Part I (V = 12V)
R (Ω)
I (A)
14
1
11.8
10
2
6.2
5
2.3
Current (A)
12
8
6
4
2
0
10
1.2
20
0.6
0
5
10
15
20
25
Resistance (Ω)
Part II (R = 15Ω)
I (A)
2
0.13
4
0.29
6
0.39
8
0.55
10
0.67
12
0.79
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Current vs Voltage
Current (A)
V(V)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
y = 0.0669x
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Voltage (V)
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Name ___________________________________________________________ Date ____________________
Class ____________________________________________________________ Hour ___________________
Question: What is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a simple circuit?
Claim (Write a sentence stating the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance):
Evidence (Provide scientific evidence to support your claim. The evidence should include specific values of
voltage, current and resistance that demonstrate the relationship.):
Reasoning (Explain why your evidence supports your claim. Describe what is happening in a resistor and
how that explains the evidence you see. Also describe what voltage is and how that explains the evidence
you see.):
Counter-argument (Describe another explanation that you think people might come up with. Explain why
the evidence shows that your claim is the correct one.):
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Name ___________________________________________________________ Date ____________________
Class ____________________________________________________________ Hour ___________________
Question: What is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a simple circuit?
Claim
What is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a simple circuit?
Evidence
What scientific evidence do you have to support your claim? What specific values of voltage, current, and
resistance demonstrate this relationship?
Reasoning
Why does your evidence support your claim? What happens in a resistor and how does that impact the
resulting current in a circuit? What is voltage and how does that impact the current in a circuit?
Counter-argument
What other explanation do you think people might come up with? Why does the evidence show that your
claim is the correct one?
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Name ___________________________________________________________ Date ____________________
Class ____________________________________________________________ Hour ___________________
Question: What is the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in a simple circuit?
Claim:
Evidence:
Reasoning:
Counter-argument:
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“Graphic Organizers and Writing Scaffolds” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
Question:
Claim:
Evidence:
Reasoning:
Counter-argument:
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Focus on “Appropriate and Sufficient” Evidence
Maria was given several samples of unknown metals and she was trying to figure out if any of them were the same
material. She measured the mass and volume of each sample. She made a claim that samples 1 and 3 are the same
material. Does she have sufficient evidence to support her claim? What might she do to strengthen her argument?
Sample #
Mass
(g)
Volume
(mL)
1
27.0
10.0
2
142.0
19.5
3
81.0
30.2
4
288.4
32.4
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“Focus on ‘Appropriate and Sufficient’ Evidence” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
Question:
What data will you provide?
What data will you not provide (but they need for a quality argument)?
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Focus on Evidence and Reasoning
Question: What is the relationship between the
organization of the periodic table and atomic
radius?
Claim: As you move across a period from left to
right, the atomic radii decrease. As you move
down a group, the atomic radii increase.
First, check the boxes of all evidence listed below that
help support the claim.
Then, write the reason why that evidence helps
support the claim.
If the evidence does not help support the claim, write
“not important evidence.”
Evidence:  Atoms are very small and their radii are measured in picometers, which is 10-12m.
Reason:
Evidence:
 In Group 1, Hydrogen has an atomic radius of 37pm, Li is 152pm, and the atomic radii keep increasing
to Cs at 265pm.
Reason:
Evidence:
 In Group 2, Be has an atomic radius of 112 pm, Mg is 160pm, and the atomic radii keep increasing to Ba
at 222pm.
Reason:
Evidence:  All of the atoms in a group have the same number of valence electrons.
Reason:
Evidence:
 As you move across Period 2 from left to right, Li (all the way to the left) has the largest atomic radius
at 152pm, and Ar (all the way to the right) has the smallest atomic radius at 98pm.
Reason:
Evidence: The ionic radius for Li is only 76pm, while its atomic radius is 152pm.
Reason:
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“Focus on Evidence and Reasoning” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
Question:
Claim:
Evidence: 
Reason:
Evidence: 
Reason:
Evidence: 
Reason:
Evidence: 
Reason:
Evidence: 
Reason:
Evidence: 
Reason:
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Focus on Counter-Arguments
Which ball will hit the ground first?
I think….
…because…
B
A
What do other people say?
Ball A will hit the ground first.
Possible reasons:
I changed my mind because……
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Ball B will hit the ground first.
Possible reasons:
Balls A and B will hit the ground at
the same time
Possible reasons:
I didn’t change my mind because…
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“Focus on Counter-Arguments” Reflection
Might this instructional strategy be helpful with your students?
What might it look like in your content area? What examples might you use?
Question:
Prediction:
Possible reasons:
What predictions do you anticipate from your students?
Prediction:
Prediction:
Possible reasons:
Possible reasons:
What evidence will they need to change their mind?
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