CREDITS:
3 (3+0)
LECTURER:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Faiz Abdullah
Department of English
Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication
UPM
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 1

At the end of the unit, students are able to:
 identify the major areas of speech communication,
 explain the general influence of culture and its relevance to communication,
 define communication and its components, and
 describe the relevance of general principles of communication to real life situations.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 2

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Linear View:
A (speaker) =====> B (listener)
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The Interactional View
A (speaker) =======> B (listener)
A (speaker) <======= B (listener)
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The Transactional View
A  =================  B
(speaker/listener) (speaker/listener)
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 3

The Message Model
 derived from theories of animal communication systems
 sender encodes the message (M) into a public signal and the message receiver decodes the public signal
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Also known as the ‘two-box’ model
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 4

SPEAKER
(M)
Encoding
(E)
Public Sounds
HEARER
(M)
Decoding
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) 5

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Speaker has some Message (M) in his mind that s/he wants to communicate to Listener
Speaker uses language knowledge to encode the meaning of the
Message (M) to produce the Expression (E)
Expression (E) comprises a series of public sounds
On hearing the beginning of (E), hearer starts a decoding process:

Identifies incoming phonological (sound), morphological
(word), and syntactic (clause/sentence) categories, and semantic content (meanings) in sequence
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Composes meaning of incoming sounds as successfully decoded message
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) 6

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Model predicts that speech communication is successful as long as the hearer decodes the same message that the speaker has encoded
Conversely, communication unsuccessful or broken down if decoded message is different from encoded message
In sum, private ideas are communicated by making public sounds with the use of language as medium or vehicle of transmission of verbal message
Classic ‘conduit’ model of language as communication
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 7

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Linguistically ambiguous expressions e.g. Flying planes can be dangerous (hearer presumes speaker's remarks to be contextually appropriate);
Unique shared reference in expressions E.g. The
shrewd politician won the election (dependent upon context i.e. different people in different contexts);
Communicative intent E.g. I'll be there tonight. (Is it a prediction, promise, or a threat?);
Non-literal speech (for purposes of irony, sarcasm, figurative use of language) i.e. in certain contexts, we mean the opposite of what we actually say;
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 8

Problems with the Message Model(cont’d…)
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Indirect speech - one communicative act is achieved by means of another within an appropriate context i.e. same expression to achieve different effects in appropriate contexts
E.g. (a) My car has a flat tyre. (At a petrol station): direct speech
>> reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>asking for help from pump attendant
(b) My car has a flat tyre. (To a police officer): direct speech
>>reporting state of affairs; indirect speech >>pleading against illegal parking?
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Situations where the goal is not message communication but an effect or change in the target situation E.g. firing someone from a job, passing sentence on a guilty person, intention to persuade, impress, deceive etc.
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) 9

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Private ideas are communicated by making public sounds with the use of language as medium or vehicle of transmission of verbal message
Message meaning processed internally via linguistic sub-systems of phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics
Classic ‘conduit’ model of language as communication
Does not take into account shared system of beliefs, values, attitudes, and inferences that function as communication strategies in context
Learning to communicate involves acquiring a range of such shared culture systems, presumptions as well as a system of inferential strategies.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 10

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Presumptions of the Inferential Model of
Language Communication
LP (Linguistic Presumption) i.e. the speaker is capable of determining the meaning and the referents of the expression;
CP (Communicative Presumption) - speaker has an identifiable communication intent unless there is evidence to the contrary;
PL (Presumption of Literalness) - listener assumes that speaker is speaking literally
ConPs (Conversational Presumptions): Relevance,
Sincerity, Truthfulness, Quantity, Quality (Cf. Paul
Grice's 'co-operative principle' [1975])
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 11

The Co-operative Principle (Grice, 1975) refers to the
‘rules for co-operation’ between speakers and listeners so that communication can take place. Comprises such rules called ‘conversational maxims’:
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Maxim of Quantity (speak only as much as necessary)
Maxim of Quality (speak truthfully)
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Maxim of Relevance (speak only about relevant things)
Maxim of Manner (speak clearly and briefly)
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 12

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Maxims are used to imply meaning (conversational
implicature)
E.g. A: Let's go to the movies. (Invitation)
B: I have an exam tomorrow. (Refusal)
(Maxim of Relevance at work)
The Reality Principle refers to the ‘rule’ that people are expected to talk about real and possible things, unless there is evidence to the contrary
E.g. A: How are you going to New York?
B: I'm flying.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 13

Role of specific speech skills and competencies
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Integrity
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Knowledge
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Rhetorical sensitivity expressive, and instrumental purposes
‘Other’ orientation (i.e. being sensitive to the listener’s needs and problems
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 14

Oral skills:
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Fluency and Accuracy
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Articulation
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Voice control
Body language
Other non-verbal aspects
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 15

Context of Situation
Speaker/Hearer
(Attributes)
FBMK UPM 2012
Channel
Message/Feedback
Noise
Context of Culture
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication)
Speaker/Hearer
(Attributes)
16

An effective speech communication act as an interplay among various elements:
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Speaker
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Listener
Message
Feedback
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Channel
Speech situation
Cultural context
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 17

The elements involved in the speech communication process function interactively and
dynamically as:
 change in one element affects others (the
‘spider’s web’ effect).
 no single element controls the entire process.
 the whole process is context-sensitive.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 18

Context of Culture:
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Norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, rules and cultural maxims
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Elements of speech communication are culturespecific
Incidence of intercultural contact
Cross-cultural presentations
Role of culture in communication competence
(enculturation and acculturation)
Speech in public as transaction
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 19

Speaker (Source-Receiver):
 an indispensable component in speech transactions
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 source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding,
Purpose – to entertain, inform, persuade, actuate etc.
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Knowledge – subject-area competence, ands speaking skills
Attitudes – towards self, listeners and subject; involves power relations with listeners and/or audience
Credibility (Ethos) – listener’s audience’s estimation of the speaker’s worth. It is perhaps the most important element that determines the acceptance of the speaker’s message.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 20

Listener (Source-Receiver):
 an indispensable component in speech transactions
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 source-encoding, simultaneous encoding and decoding,
Purpose- like speakers, listeners have their own purposes for listening and these must be taken into account by the speaker; multiple purposes
Knowledge and interest- affect response to speaker’s message – need for speakers to be aware of these in a general way so that expectations can be met to some extent
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Listening skills – processing of the oral message -the speaker must look for evident signs of understanding and non-understanding
Attitudes about the speaker, the self, and the topic – importance of audience analysis before public speeches are made more effective
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 21

Context of Situation:
 physical setting (physical environment, furniture, lighting, audio-visual equipment etc.)
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 socio-psychological setting –social expectations and norms in specific settings– comprises interactions involving: people (relationships and levels of formality); place (classroom setting, ‘home’ setting); purpose (memorial service, political debate) temporal setting (time of day influences message/feedback timing)
Includes immediate cultural setting
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 22

Channel:
 media through which the message passes. Often multiple channels are in operation simultaneously:
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 verbal channel (words, phrases and sentences) visual channel (gestures, facial expressions, body language) pictorial channel (visual aids – charts, slides, graphs, objects) aural channel (voice) paralinguistic channel (voice tone, pitch, loudness, speech tone, emotional overtones)
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 23

Message:
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Has content, structure, and style:
Content – central topic and sub-topics, subject-matter, and issues
Structure – pattern of organisation of speech or conversation that provides idea coherence
Style – language variety, levels of formality, rhetoric and diction
Influenced by interaction of other elements in communication context (situation and culture).
Each message is a packages of verbal and/or nonverbal signals.
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
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Feedback:
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Special categories of messages that can be divided into feedback and feedforward
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Feedback - messages that are sent back to the speaker as a reaction to what was said - basis for speaker to modify/adjust subsequent messages which become feedback to listener.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 25

Noise:
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Physical – interference in the physical transaction
Psychological – cognitive or mental interference
Semantic – conflict of meanings
Communication Effects :
 intellectual, affective, and/or psychomotor changes in speakers and listeners
 every act of speech communication has consequence of some kind
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
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6 important dimensions of feedback: positive  ====================  negative person-focused  ==============  message-focused immediate  ====================  delayed low-monitoring  ===============  high monitoring supportive  =====================  critical spontaneous  ==============  structured responses
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 27

Feedback orientations*:
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Left orientation: intimate, interpersonal relationships
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Middle orientation: acquaintance relationships
Right orientation: relatively hostile, uneasy relationships
*Orientations are not mutually exclusive categories, i.e. feedback can be supportive as well as critical (evaluative feedback)
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 28

Feedforward:

-information provided by speaker before sending a particular message to indicate nature of the message
E.g. preface to a book, topic sentence of a paragraph, introduction to a public speech
 function as metamessage
E.g. Wait till you hear this!
I'm going to tell you a secret.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 29

Main functions of feedforward messages:
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 to initiate channels of communication
E.g. phatic communion: Haven't we met before?
to preview future messages
E.g. I'm afraid I have bad news for you.
to altercast - to assign a specific role to someone and address that person in that role
E.g. As a parent, what do you think… to disclaim - to position message so that it does not reflect negatively on the speaker
E.g. I'm not supporting or denouncing the government, but
I…
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 30

“Communication is power. Those who have mastered its effective use can change their own experience of the world and the world’s experience of them.” (Anthony Robbins)
FBMK UPM 2012
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) 31

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Power underlies all social relations; put differently, it makes social relationships work
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Social relations include speech interactions in which people exercise power to achieve their purposes for speaking/listening
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Social relations of power are never equal - E.g. in academic lectures (interactions), the lecturer exercises greater power as well as different types of power over the students
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 32


Anthony Giddens (1995) defines “power” as
“the use of resources, of whatever kind, to secure outcomes” in social practices (p. 214).

Pierre Bourdieu (1991): In Language and symbolic
power, Bourdieu argues that “…language should he viewed not only as a means of communication but also as a medium of power through which individuals pursue their own interests and display their practical competence”.
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 33

1.
2.
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Expert power based on knowledge and/or expertise in a discipline
May also be called “intellectual power”
E.g. lecturers and professors
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Referent power
Based on admiration or idol worship
E.g. pop/movie stars and popular politicians
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 34

3.
4.
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Legitimate power
Also known as “authoritative power”
Drawn from legal sources or credentials
E.g. Teachers, lawyers, lecturers, government ministers, etc.
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Coercive power
Based on the use of force (physical, legal, intellectual, etc.)
Also known as “punishment power”
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 35

5.
6.
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Reward power
Based ability to give rewards and incentives to others under control of person who exercises this form of power
E.g. parents, teachers, politicians, etc.
Persuasive power
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Based on ability to use language to secure consent/agreement of other peple
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Sometimes known as “bargaining power”
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 36

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Social power in interactions, including spoken interactions/communication, works in combination of different forms of power
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People who exercise power may be called
“power holders” (see examples in types of power above)
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The exercise of power becomes problematic when the holder abuses it to dominate/manipulate others and/or for personal gain
B. A. (English Language)
FBMK UPM 2012 /BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) 36


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 http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/TCH.CHAP20.HT
M http://www.slideshare.net/viteriange/bases-of-socialpower http://books.google.com/books/about/Language_and
_power.html?id=5RJxAAAAIAAJ http://books.google.com/books/about/Language_and
_symbolic_power.html?id=u2ZlGBiJntAC
B. A. (English Language)
/BBI 3213 (Speech Communication) FBMK UPM 2012 38