Leadership Approaches
• Positional Power (e.g., based on job title, rank)
• The Leader [e.g., Traits, Transformational & Charismatic
leadership]
• The Led [e.g., Follower characteristics]
• The Influence Process (e.g., Leader-Member Exchange)
• The Situation (e.g., Path-Goal Theory)
Typical Leadership Process
Leader
Emergence
Leader Acceptance
& Effectiveness
Leadership
Decline
Role of
demographic
variables, mental
ability, Big 5
personality factors,
self-monitoring
Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974)
1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.
2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.
4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.
5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information.
6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people.
7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues.
8. I would probably make a good actor.
9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music.
10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am.
11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone.
12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention.
13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons.
14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me.
15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time.
16. I'm not always the person I appear to be.
17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor.
18. I have considered being an entertainer.
19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else.
20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting.
21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations.
22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going.
23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should.
24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end).
25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.
Self-Monitoring (Form of Social Intelligence)
• Awareness of how one is being received by others (cognitive,
perceptual process)
• Ability to alter one’s behavior (if necessary) depending on how
one thinks they are being received (adaptability)
~ Some Leadership Traits ~
Traits associated with leader effectiveness
• Consciensciousness
• Extraversion
Leader skills related to effectiveness
• Technical skills
• Conceptual skills
• Interpersonal skills
Types of Power
• Reward [Based on the ability to administer rewards and benefits e.g.,
raises, promotions, positive performance evaluations]
• Coercive [Based on the ability to administer punishments to subordinates]
• Legitimate [Authority based on one’s official title or position e.g., CEO,
General, Police Officer]
• Expert [Possession of a given body of knowledge and/or skills. Can often
be rather limited in scope]
• Referent [Identification, attraction, or respect for someone. Common for
Charismatic leaders]
Typical Reactions to Power
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Likely
Possible
Unlikely
Referent
Expert
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Leadership Behaviors
Consideration Style
(expressing warmth,
caring concern for workers)
Factors
• Ability level of employees
• Number of subordinates
Structured Style
(organized, planned,
use of deadlines)
• Difficulty of job
• Best for a leader to use both styles when appropriate
Measurement of Leader’s Behaviors
(Based on the Leader Behavior Descriptive
Questionnaire; LBDQ)
Consideration:
•
•
•
•
•
Is easy to get along with _____.
Explains actions to group members
Usually treats everyone in the same manner
Let's followers know of changes in advance
Puts group ideas into operation
Structure:
•
•
•
•
•
Informs subordinates about what is expected
Clarifies roles among group members
Makes decisions regarding work methods
Advocates the use of standardized procedures
Sets specific goals and monitors performance
Leadership Questionnaire
(From the perspective of leaders)
_______ I encourage my team to participate when it comes decision making time and I try to
implement their ideas and suggestions.
_______ Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task.
_______ I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time.
_______ I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.
_______ The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it.
_______ I encourage my employees to be creative about their job.
_______ When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for.
_______ I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership, and
psychology; and then putting what I have read into action.
_______ When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships.
_______ I manage my time very efficiently.
_______ I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees.
_______ Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me.
_______ Nothing is more important than building a great team.
_______ I enjoy analyzing problems.
_______ I honor other people's boundaries.
_______ Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession; and then
implementing the new procedures I have learned.
Path-Goal Theory
Leader is seen as important in providing a
path for employees to attain desired goals
Leadership Behaviors (must be able to use all four
types when necessary. Use varies with such factors as
employee ability, work environment, group size)
• Directive [leader tells subordinates how to perform tasks; provides
guidelines and structure]
• Supportive [leader shows caring and concern for subordinates’ wellbeing]
• Participative [leader involves subordinates in decision-making]
• Achievement-oriented [leader sets specific and challenging goals;
promotes high work-related aspirations and goal attainment]
Path Goal (cont.)
What can leaders do to help employees attain goals?
1) Remove obstacles/problems to gain attainment
2) Provide valued incentives to employees
3) Clarify paths to goals (e.g., use of feedback)
Job
Rewards
Satisfaction
Leader
Rewards
Acceptance of Leader
Effort
Performance
Performance
Rewards
Motivation
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model
[A Model of Decision Making]
A1: Use available information; makes sole
decision
Autocratic
A2: Get employee to acquire some information;
makes sole decision
Consultative
C1: Leader gets individual input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
C2: Leader get group input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
Group
G2: Total group decision-making; leader is
an equal member in the group
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)
General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy
A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)
B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision
required)
C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)
~ Specific Vroom-Yetton Decision-Making Tree Questions ~
1. Does the problem require a quality solution?
2. Does the leader have enough information to make a high-quality decision?
3. Is the problem structured?
4. Is acceptance by subordinates important for the effective implementation of
the solution?
5. Is the leader certain that the decision will be accepted by subordinates if he/she
makes the decision alone?
6. Do subordinates have the same organizational goals that will be obtained by
solving the problem?
7. Is conflict among subordinates probable in obtaining a solution?
Participative Decision-Making
Pros:
• Increases cooperation and communication
• Enhances employee identification & acceptance of decisions
• Can lead to better quality decisions
• Gives employees better understanding of decision complexity and issues
Cons:
• Takes more time to make decisions
• Who to involve in decision-making (e.g., employee knowledge &
motivation issues)
• What decisions to involve employees in making (all, some) and who
decides
• Incentives for employees (increased costs?)
~ Leadership & Self-Fulfilling Prophecy ~
1
Supervisor Expectancy
Leadership Behaviors
2
5
Subordinate
Self-Expectancy
6
3
Subordinate Performance
4
Subordinate
Motivation
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
(LMX)
Leader
Evaluation of
subordinates on:
• Ability
• Trust
• Responsibility
Subordinates
Perceived similarity
Gender
In-Group
[e.g., better job duties,
greater rewards, more
visibility, treated with
warmth and caring by
the leader, greater
access to information]
~ LMX Outcomes ~
~ Employee Outcomes ~
High
High Quality of
Leader-Member
Exchange
Satisfaction
Performance ratings
Organizational commimtment
Role clarity
Low
Role conflict
Turnover intentions
Female Leaders in Business
• 10 Fortune 500 companies are run by women
• 20 Fortune 1000 companies are run by women
Source:
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/womenceo
s/
Female Representation in Academics
• In 2007, 23% of university presidents are female,
more than double the 9.5% in 1986, but only 2% more
than 2001
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United
States
~ Female Traits and Leadership ~
Rate traits of
typical males
Rate traits of
typical females
Rate traits of typical of
leaders
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
~ Implicit Leadership Theory ~
Key: The perception of leader behaviors and
prototype matching process
Prototype of effective
leadership
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Good interpersonal Skills
Prototype
matching
Observed Leadership
Behaviors
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Leader
Evaluation
My boss is a
good leader
Rating Behaviors (using global impressions)
Question: Does your bosss have good social skills?
Answer: Yes, he’s a good leader so he must have
good social skills
~ Transformational Leadership ~
Basic Dimensions
Idealized Influence (charasmatic, establishing visions, role-modeling)
Inspirational Motivation (providing challanges, goal sharing, go beyond selfinterests)
Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem solving, critical
thinking, flexible)
Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support, empowerment)
Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice perceptions, high
trust, more organizational citizenship behaviors
Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader
~ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership Approaches ~
Transformational
Transactional
Behaviors
Inspirational,
empowering
Use of
reinforcements
(e.g., rewarding
desired
behaviors)
Goals
Group/organizational
interests
Employee self
interest
Desired
change
Major, innovative
Regular, routine
Combination of both styles is common (or needed)
~ Impact of Culture on Leadership ~
Are there cultural difference in such things as leader expectations,
acceptable leader behaviors and/or traits, leader use of incentives (e.g.,
leadership prototypes)?
Are some leadership styles, behaviors universally accepted and effective?
Japanese Sample
Prototype
Disciplined
Intelligent
Trustworthy
Educated
Responsible
Eastern
U.S. Sample
Prototype
Persistent
Industrious
High Verbal Skills
Goal-Oriented
Determined
Western
No single trait emerged in the Top 5 of the eight countries surveyed.
~ Interdependence of Leaders and Followers ~
“... the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more
followers.” --- Ralph Nader
Some Basic Points
• Leadership is a process, not a person
• Process is dynamic and reciprocal (not top down)
• Situational context is crucial (e.g., demands, resources)
• Importance of follower characteristics (needs, expectation,
perceptions) and their responses
~ Leader-Follower Process ~
Leader behavior,
responses (e.g.,
sensitivity,
praise)
Leader
Characteristics/T
raits
Employee
leadership
prototypes
Situation (e.g.,
task demands,
resources)
Employee
characteristics
Employee
perceptions of
leader (e.g.,
competance,
motivations)
Employee
expectations
Employee
behavior
Sample Leadership Self-Assessment (Total 45 items)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I prioritize tasks when faced with limited time and/or resources.
Once I make a suggestion about an issue, I don't think about it further.
I follow through on every commitment I make.
I steer through ambiguity and 'information clutter' to resolve complex problems.
I ask questions to try to piece together 'unrelated' information, events. etc.
I build momementum by spending 90% of my time on the top 10% of my priority list.
7. I view my 'wins' with pride and humility.
8. I sacrifice my principles if they are not working.
9. I sort out alternatives by 'winging it'.
10. I make connections that reveal key issues, problems, or
opportunites.
11. I direct my energy equally at all pending issues.
12. I emphasize positive features of situations even after setbacks or when facing huge
obstacles.13. I ignore requests from people below me, if I don't have time.
14. I test ideas and assumptions by reviewing them first with leaders and critical thinkers.15. I
accept a problem at face value, even though there may be less obvious underlying factors
driving the problem.
16. I find a way to 'get it done' and will sacrifice personally to achieve a goal.
17. I understand my own emotions and feelings and how they impact a situation.
18. I help individuals and teams reach higher levels of performance by displaying confidence in
them at critical junctures.
19. I am receptive to new ideas of others and try to improve or enhance them in a non-threatening
manner.
20. I take into account the potential implications of a decision, before moving forward.
Measures 5 dimensions: Focused drive, Emotional intelligence, Building trust/enabling others,
Conceptual thinking, Systems thinking