Typical Leadership Process
Leader
Emergence
Leader Acceptance
& Effectiveness
Leadership
Decline
Role of demographic
variables, cognitive
ability (verbal), Big 5
personality factors such
as Extraversion and
Consciensciousness,
Self-monitoring
Self-Monitoring (Form of Social Intelligence)
• Awareness of how one is being received by others (cognitive,
perceptual process)
• Ability to alter one’s behavior (if necessary) depending on how
one thinks they are being received (adaptability)
Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974)
1. I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people.
2. My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
3. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.
4. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.
5. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information.
6. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain people.
7. When I am uncertain how to act in a social situation, I look to the behavior of others for cues.
8. I would probably make a good actor.
9. I rarely seek the advice of my friends to choose movies, books, or music.
10. I sometimes appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than I actually am.
11. I laugh more when I watch a comedy with others than when alone.
12. In groups of people, I am rarely the center of attention.
13. In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons.
14. I am not particularly good at making other people like me.
15. Even if I am not enjoying myself, I often pretend to be having a good time.
16. I'm not always the person I appear to be.
17. I would not change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor.
18. I have considered being an entertainer.
19. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else.
20. I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting.
21. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations.
22. At a party, I let others keep the jokes and stories going.
23. I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should.
24. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if for a right end).
25. I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.
~ Some Leadership Traits ~
Traits associated with leader effectiveness
• Consciensciousness
• Extraversion
Leader skills related to effectiveness
• Technical skills
• Conceptual skills
• Interpersonal skills
Types of Power
• Reward [Based on the ability to administer rewards and benefits e.g.,
raises, promotions, positive performance evaluations]
• Coercive [Based on the ability to administer punishments to subordinates]
• Legitimate [Authority based on one’s official title or position e.g., CEO,
General, Police Officer]
• Expert [Possession of a given body of knowledge and/or skills. Can often
be rather limited in scope]
• Referent [Identification, attraction, or respect for someone. Common for
Charismatic leaders]
Typical Reactions to Power
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Likely
Possible
Unlikely
Referent
Expert
Legitimate
Reward
Coercive
Leadership Behaviors
Consideration Style
(expressing warmth,
caring concern for workers)
Factors
• Ability level of employees
• Number of subordinates
Structured Style
(organized, planned,
use of deadlines)
• Difficulty of job
• Best for a leader to use both styles when appropriate
Measurement of Leader’s Behaviors
(Based on the Leader Behavior Descriptive
Questionnaire; LBDQ)
Consideration:
•
•
•
•
•
Is easy to get along with _____.
Explains actions to group members
Usually treats everyone in the same manner
Let's followers know of changes in advance
Puts group ideas into operation
Structure:
•
•
•
•
•
Informs subordinates about what is expected
Clarifies roles among group members
Makes decisions regarding work methods
Advocates the use of standardized procedures
Sets specific goals and monitors performance
Leadership Questionnaire
(From the perspective of leaders)
_______ I encourage my team to participate when it comes decision making time and I try to
implement their ideas and suggestions.
_______ Nothing is more important than accomplishing a goal or task.
_______ I closely monitor the schedule to ensure a task or project will be completed in time.
_______ I enjoy coaching people on new tasks and procedures.
_______ The more challenging a task is, the more I enjoy it.
_______ I encourage my employees to be creative about their job.
_______ When seeing a complex task through to completion, I ensure that every detail is accounted for.
_______ I find it easy to carry out several complicated tasks at the same time.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and journals about training, leadership, and
psychology; and then putting what I have read into action.
_______ When correcting mistakes, I do not worry about jeopardizing relationships.
_______ I manage my time very efficiently.
_______ I enjoy explaining the intricacies and details of a complex task or project to my employees.
_______ Breaking large projects into small manageable tasks is second nature to me.
_______ Nothing is more important than building a great team.
_______ I enjoy analyzing problems.
_______ I honor other people's boundaries.
_______ Counseling my employees to improve their performance or behavior is second nature to me.
_______ I enjoy reading articles, books, and trade journals about my profession; and then
implementing the new procedures I have learned.
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model
[A Model of Decision Making]
A1: Use available information; makes sole
decision
Autocratic
A2: Get employee to acquire some information;
makes sole decision
Consultative
C1: Leader gets individual input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
C2: Leader get group input regarding a
decision; makes sole decision
Group
G2: Total group decision-making; leader is
an equal member in the group
Vroom-Yetton-Yago Model (cont.)
General Criteria for Selecting Decision-Making Strategy
A) Time (e.g., immediate decision vs. ample time available)
B) Decision Quality (e.g., routine decision vs. high quality decision
required)
C) Group Acceptance (of the decision itself and the process used)
Participative Decision-Making
Pros:
• Increases cooperation and communication
• Enhances employee identification & acceptance of decisions
• Can lead to better quality decisions
• Gives employees better understanding of decision complexity and issues
Cons:
• Takes more time to make decisions
• Who to involve in decision-making (e.g., employee knowledge &
motivation issues)
• What decisions to involve employees in making (all, some) and who
decides
• Incentives for employees (increased costs?)
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
(LMX)
Leader
Evaluation of
subordinates on:
• Ability
• Trust
• Responsibility
Subordinates
Perceived similarity
Gender
In-Group
[e.g., better job duties,
greater rewards, more
visibility, treated with
warmth and caring by
the leader, greater
access to information]
~ LMX Outcomes ~
~ Employee Outcomes ~
High
High Quality of
Leader-Member
Exchange
Satisfaction
Performance ratings
Organizational commimtment
Role clarity
Low
Role conflict
Turnover intentions
~ Female Traits and Leadership ~
Rate traits of
typical males
Rate traits of
typical females
Rate traits of typical of
leaders
Male traits seen as similar to leadership traits
Female Representation in Business
• 12 Fortune 500 companies are run by women (2011)
Source:
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/20
11/womenceos/
Female Representation in Academics
• In 2007, 23% of university presidents are female, more than
double the 9.5% in 1986, but only 2% more than 2001
• Women hold 24% of full professorships in the United States
Women in the US Senate (N = 20; 2013)
Barbara Mikilski
Mary Landrieu
Dianne Feinstein
Maria Cantwell
Barbara Boxer
Debbie Stabenow
Lisa Murkowski
Amy Klobuchar
Jeanne Shaheen
Tammy Bladwin
Deb Fischer
Heidi Heitkamp
Parry Murray
Claire McCaskill
Kirsten
Gillibrand
Mazie Hirono
Susan Collins
Kay Hagan
Kelly Ayotte
Elizabeth Warren
Current Female Heads of State Worldwide
Country
Leader
Germany
Chancellor Angela Merkel
Liberia
President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf
India
President Pratibha Patil
Argentina
President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchne
Bangledesh
Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed
Iceland
Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir
Lithuania
President Dalia Grybauskaite
Costa Rica
President Laura Chinchilla
Trinidad and Tobago
Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar
Australia
Prime Minister Julia Gillard
Slovakia
Prime Minister Iveta Radicová
Brazil
President Dilma Rousseff
Mali
Prime Minister Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé
Kosovo
President Atifete Jahjaga
Thailand
Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra (recently removed from office)
Denmark
Prime Minister Helle Thorning-Schmidt
Switzerland
President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
Jamaica
Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller
South Korea
Park Geun-hye
Source: http://www.filibustercartoons.com/charts_rest_female-leaders.php
Female Attractiveness and Corporate Success
Gender
Female
Regular
Male
Fast
Regular
Fast
Unattractive
Attractive
X
Rated on various factors (e.g., ability, integrity, likeability)
• Key is perception of levels of femininity. If highly feminine, not seen as very
capable.
Gender and Leadership: Recent Findings
Females as CEOs --increase in stock price
Survey of over 60,000 direct
reports
But, it depends on
industry
No gender preference for one’s
own boss
Price goes up higher if
female CEO is head of
female-dominated
business, otherwise small
decrease in stock price
(Cooke & Glass, 2011)
“Ideal” boss:
54% -- No Preference
13% -- Female Preference
33% -- Male Preference
• Small but significant preference for opposite-sex
bosses
• Increased preference for stereotypical female leader
characteristics (sensitive, supportive) vs. direct,
forceful. Study by Elesser & Lever, 2011)
More Recent Findings
Analyzed 99 data sets from 58 journal publications, 30 unpublished dissertations or
theses, five books and six other sources (e.g., white papers)
86% of the samples from studies conducted in the United States or Canada
Basic Results --• Ratings by others indicated that women were perceived as more effective
leaders than men in middle management, business and education organizations
• Women were viewed as more effective in senior-level management positions
• Men rate themselves as significantly more effective than women rate themselves
Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., Walker, L. S. & David J. Woehr, D. J. (2014) Gender and Perceptions of Leadership
Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of Contextual Moderators. Journal of Applied Psychology
Israeli Army Study
Low
Expectation
Label
Overall
Performance
Training
High
Expectation
Label
Ratings of
leaders by
subordinates
• Leadership as a limited resource; allocated to those who will lead to best results
Path-Goal Theory
Leader is seen as important in providing a
path for employees to attain desired goals
Leadership Behaviors (must be able to use all four
types when necessary. Use varies with such factors as
employee ability, work environment, group size)
• Directive [leader tells subordinates how to perform tasks; provides
guidelines and structure]
• Supportive [leader shows caring and concern for subordinates’ wellbeing]
• Participative [leader involves subordinates in decision-making]
• Achievement-oriented [leader sets specific and challenging goals;
promotes high work-related aspirations and goal attainment]
Path Goal (cont.)
What can leaders do to help employees attain goals?
1) Remove obstacles/problems to gain attainment
2) Provide valued incentives to employees
3) Clarify paths to goals (e.g., use of feedback)
Job
Rewards
Satisfaction
Leader
Rewards
Acceptance of Leader
Effort
Performance
Performance
Rewards
Motivation
~ Implicit Leadership Theory ~
Key: The perception of leader behaviors and
prototype matching process
Prototype of effective
leadership
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Good interpersonal skills
Prototype
matching
Observed Leadership
Behaviors
Intelligent
High Verbal Skills
Fair
Leader
Evaluation
My boss is a
good leader
Rating Behaviors (using global impressions)
Question: Does your bosss have good social skills?
Answer: Yes, he’s a good leader so he must have
good social skills
~ Transformational Leadership ~
Basic Dimensions
Idealized Influence (charasmatic, establishing visions, role-modeling)
Inspirational Motivation (providing challanges, goal sharing, go beyond selfinterests)
Intellectual Stimulation (encouraging creative problem solving, critical
thinking, flexible)
Individualized Consideration (encouragement and support, empowerment)
Benefits: Leader effectiveness, high procedural justice perceptions, high
trust, more organizational citizenship behaviors
Possible negative(s): Dependence on leader
~ Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership Approaches ~
Transformational
Transactional
Behaviors
Inspirational,
empowering
Use of
reinforcements
(e.g., rewarding
desired
behaviors)
Goals
Group/organizational
interests
Employee self
interest
Desired
change
Major, innovative
Regular, routine
Combination of both styles is common (or needed)
~ Impact of Culture on Leadership ~
Are there cultural difference in such things as leader expectations, acceptable
leader behaviors and/or traits, leader’s use of incentives (e.g., leadership
prototypes)?
Are some leadership styles, behaviors universally accepted and effective?
Japanese Sample
Prototype
U.S. Sample
Prototype
Disciplined
Intelligent
Trustworthy
Educated
Responsible
Persistent
Industrious
High Verbal Skills
Goal-Oriented
Determined
Western
Eastern
No single trait emerged in the Top 5 of the eight countries surveyed.
~ Interdependence of Leaders and Followers ~
“... the function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not more
followers.” --- Ralph Nader
Some Basic Points
• Leadership is a process, not a person
• Process is dynamic and reciprocal (not top down)
• Situational context is crucial (e.g., demands, resources)
• Importance of follower characteristics (needs, expectation,
perceptions) and their responses
Summary of Some Key Leadership Factors
• Flexibility in leader behavior (style must match the requirements of a given
situation such as time frame, group acceptance, decision quality)
• Know their subordinates and provide incentives that match their needs and
desires
• Treat subordinates fairly
• Set realistic and challenging goals
• Leaders need to be perceived as important in order for employees to get
rewards
• Guarantee that employee job performance leads to getting desired rewards