CHAPTER 6 :
WRITING PROCESS
PHASE 2
Research, Organize and Compose
Presented by Business students at
John Molson School of Business,
Concordia:
Nina Ansermino, Eliyah Assedou,
and Stewart Sullivan
PHASE 2
of Mary Ellen Guffey’s
3-X-3 Writing Process
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Three Simple Steps to Writing
• Research data on your topic
• Organize text elements
• Compose a coherent article
First Step to Writing:
Research
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First Step to Writing
• Before writing a message, collect all the
information that you will need for your
message
• This information will help shape the
message that you are trying to convey to
the reader
5
First Step to Writing
• To avoid an inaccurate message, gather
information that answers these primary
questions:
– What does the receiver need to know about
this topic?
– What is the receiver to do?
– How is the receiver to do it?
– When must the receiver do it?
– What will happen if the receiver doesn’t do it?
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First Step to Writing
• When you are conducting your research,
be sure to follow the right research method
– Formal Research Method
– Informal Research Method
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First Step to Writing
• Formal Research
– Long reports and complex business problems
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First Step to Writing
• Ways of conducting formal research
– Access electronically : websites, databases,
CD’s, public records and organizations
– Search manually : through the library, book,
magazine, news papers
– Investigate primary sources : interview, survey
– Experiment scientifically
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First Step to Writing
• Informal Research
– Used to find information for most routine tasks
: emails, memos, letters and reports
• Ways of conducing Informal Research
– Look in files : find previous documents to help
you with content and format
– Talk with your boss
– Interview a target audience
– Conduct an informal survey : conduct phone
surveys or questionnaires
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First Step to Writing
• Once you have gathered all the information
you need through research, you can start
finding other ways to generate ideas
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First Step to Writing
• Brainstorming : Creating a Cluster Diagram
– In the centre, write your topic name and circle
it
– Around the circle record any topic ideas that
come to mind
– Circle each separate idea
– Avoid censoring ideas, record everything
– If ideas seem related, join them with lines
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First Step to Writing
• Example of a Cluster Diagram
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First Step to Writing
• Ideas for productive group brainstorming
– Define problem and create an agenda that
outline the topics to be covered
– Establish time limits, short sessions are best
– Set a quota of ideas, quantity not quality
– Encourage “out of the box” thinking
14
First Step to Writing
– Write ideas on flip charts or on sheets of paper
hung around the room
– Require each participant to contribute, accept
and improve their ideas and the ideas of
others
– Organize and classify the ideas, searching for
the best
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Second Step to Writing:
Organize
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Second Step to Writing
• To ensure that your message is well
organized:
– Group similar items together
– Ideas should follow a sequence
• Unorganized messages can leave the
reader confused and will not emphasize
the important points
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Second Step to Writing
• Organizing Ideas From a Cluster Diagram
– Analyze the previous ideas
– Cross out irrelevant ideas
– Add new ideas that seem appropriate
– Study these ideas for similarities
– Group similar ideas into classifications
– For further visualization, make sub-cluster
circles around each classification
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Second Step to Writing
• There are two other simple techniques that
will also help you organize your data
– The scratch list
– An outline
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Second Step to Writing
• When developing your message, make a
scratch list of the topic that want to cover
• Possibly make scratch list in margins of
letter or memo that you are responding to
• Then, compose a message at you
computer from your scratch list
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Second Step to Writing
• Use an outline to organize and group ideas
to make a plan of what you want to write
– Examples:
» Alphanumeric Outline
» Decimal Outline
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Second Step to Writing
• Format for Alphanumeric Outline
– Title : Major Idea, Purpose
– I. First Major Component
• A. First subpoint
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
• B. Second subpoint
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
– II. Second Major Component
• A. First subpoint
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Second Step to Writing
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
• B. Second subpoint
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
– III. Third Major Component
• A. First subpoint
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
• B. Second subpoint
– 1. Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2. Detail, illustration, evidence
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Second Step to Writing
• Formal for Decimal Outline
– Title : Major Idea, Purpose
– 1.0 First Major Component
• 1.1 First Subpoint
– 1.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 1.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence
• 1.2 Second Subpoint
– 1.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 1.2.2 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2.0 Second Major Component
• 2.1 First Subpoint
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Second Step to Writing
– 2.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence
• 2.2 Second subpoint
– 2.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 2.2.2 Detail, Illustration, evidence
– 3.0 Third Major Component
• 3.1 First Subpoint
– 3.1.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 3.1.2 Detail, illustration, evidence
• 3.2 Second Subpoint
– 3.2.1 Detail, illustration, evidence
– 3.2.2 Detail, illustration, evidence
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Second Step to Writing
• Each major category is divided into two or
more subcategories
• Subcategories should consist of examples,
details, statists, case histories and other
data
• Each sub-point should be more subdivided
into more specific illustrations and details
depending on the audience
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Second Step to Writing
• Tips for Making Outlines
– define the main topic in the title
– divide the main topic into major components of
classifications (three-five)
– break components into sub-points
– strive to make each component exclusive
– use details, illustrations and evidence to
support sub-points
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Second Step to Writing
• Typical Major Components to Business
Outlines
– Letter or Memo
• I. Opening
• II. Body
• III. Close
– Informational Report
• I. Introduction
• II. Facts
• III. Summary
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Second Step to Writing
– Procedure
•
•
•
•
I. Step 1
II. Step 2
II. Step 3
IV. Step 4
– Analytical Report
•
•
•
•
I. Introductions
II. Facts / Findings
III. Conclusions
IV. Recommendations (if requested)
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Second Step to Writing
– Proposal
•
•
•
•
•
I. Introduction
II. Proposed Solution
III. Staffing
IV. Schedule, cost
V. Authorization
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Second Step to Writing
• Organizing Idea’s into Patterns
– There are two organizational patterns which
provide a plan of action for typical business
messages
• Direct Pattern
• Indirect Pattern
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Second Step to Writing
• Direct Pattern for Receptive Audiences
– When deciding on the message that you wish
to convey, you need to anticipate the
audiences reaction
– Make sure you put the purpose of your
message in the first or second sentence
– Explanations and details should follow the
opening
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Second Step to Writing
• Direct Method is also called “front-loading”
and has some benefits
– Saves the reader’s time : messages that take
too long may lose the reader along the way
– Sets a proper frame of mind : learning purpose
upfront helps reader put details into
perspective
– Prevents frustration : poorly organized
messages create negative impression of writer
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Second Step to Writing
• Works best with audiences that are likely to
be receptive
• Typical business messages that follow the
direct pattern : routine requests and
responses, orders and acknowledgements,
non-sensitive moms, email messages,
information reports and informational oral
presentations
• None have a sensitive subject matter
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Second Step to Writing
• Indirect Pattern for Unreceptive Audiences
– A most suitable approach of writing if you wish
to leave the audience displeased or even
hostile
– Only expose the message after you have
delivered explanation and evidence
– Works well with bad news, persuasion and
sensitive messages
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Second Step to Writing
• Typical business messages that use this
method : letters / memos that refuse
requests, deny claims and disapprove
credit, persuasive requests, sales letters,
and sensitive messages
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Second Step to Writing
• This method also has many advantages
– Respects the feelings of the audience : bad
news is painful but this way they will be
prepared for it
– Encourages a fair hearing : if main idea is read
at the beginning, reader might not listen
anymore
– Minimizes a negative reaction : negative
reaction will be improved is news is delivered
gently
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Third Step to Writing:
Compose
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Third Step to Writing
• After all of the researching and
organization, it is time to begin composing
your message
• Composing is made easier as you have all
of your ideas organized and ready to work
with
• It is made easier if you have a quiet
working environment
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Third Step to Writing
• As you begin, keep in mind that this is a
first draft, not your final copy
• Get your thoughts down on paper and go
back and edit at the end
• If you can’t think of the right word, insert a
substitute or type “find word later”
• If you handwrite, make sure to double
space that you have room for change
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Third Step to Writing
• Effective Sentences : some basic sentence
elements
– Complete Sentences
• Include subjects and verbs
• They must make sense
• Example - Your essay was very creative.
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Third Step to Writing
– Clauses and Phrases
•
•
•
•
Key building blocks to sentences
Clauses have subjects and verbs
Phrases do not
Example of clauses - Because she can sing, they
want her to be in the choir.
• Example of phrases - The manager of Gap Inc.
sent an email to the staff.
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Third Step to Writing
• Independent and Dependent Clauses
– Dependent clauses rely on independent
clauses for their meaning to make sense
– Independent clauses can stand on their own
as they are grammatically correct
– Example - Because you have all learned how
to write well, I think you should write an essay.
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Third Step to Writing
• In order for sentences to be as effective as
possible, they must be short and concise
• Limit them to about 20 words or less
• Break up complex sentences with periods
• However, make sure to still have a balance
between long and short sentences to keep
the reader interested
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Third Step to Writing
• Emphasizing Important Ideas
– Make use of bold, italics and underscore
– Use vivid words : reader can picture ideas
– Label the main idea
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Third Step to Writing
– Place the important idea first or last in the
sentence : that way the ideas will have less
competition with surrounding words
– Place the important idea in a simple sentence
or in an independent clause
– Make sure the important idea is the sentence
subject
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Third Step to Writing
• Active-Voice
– Sentences with active-voice verbs has the
doer of the action as the subject
– We use active-voice for most business writing
– Used to make a blunt announcement
– Example : Tyler made a major error in the
estimate
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Third Step to Writing
• Passive-Voice
– In passive-voice sentences, the subject is
acted upon
– Use to emphasize an action or recipient of the
action
– Use to de-emphasize negative news
– Use to conceal the doer of an action
– Example : A major error was made in the
estimate
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Third Step to Writing
• To tell if a verb is active or passive, identify
the subject of the sentence
• Then decide whether the subject is doing
the acting or if it is being acted upon
• Another clue to identifying passive-voice
verbs is that they usually include a “to be”
helping verb such as is, are, was, were,
being or been
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Third Step to Writing
• Drafting Meaningful Paragraphs
– Discuss only one topic and connect other
ideas logically
– Construct sentences and make into a
paragraph
• Main sentence : primary idea of paragraph
• Supporting sentence : provides evidence to support
main idea
• Limiting sentence : acts as an opposition to main
idea but suggesting contrasting ideas
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Third Step to Writing
• Direct Paragraph Plan
– Most business message use this paragraph
plan because it clarifies the subject
immediately
– Useful when you must define, classify,
illustrate, describe
• I. Main Sentence
• II. Supporting Sentences
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Third Step to Writing
– Can alter direct plan by adding a limiting
sentence
• I. Main Sentence
• II. Limiting Sentence
• III. Supporting Sentences
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Third Step to Writing
• Pivoting Paragraph Plan
– I. Limiting Sentence (offers a contrasting or
negative idea and can be two sentences)
– II. Main Sentence
– II. Supporting Sentence
• Useful for comparing and contrasting
• Use but or how to show a turn in direction
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Third Step to Writing
• Indirect Paragraph Plan
– I. Supporting Sentence
– II. Main Sentence
• Allows you to build a foundation of reasons before
revealing the big idea to the audience
• Explain your reasoning and then at the end draw
your conclusion
• Appropriate when delivering bad news
• Works well for describing cause followed by effect
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Third Step to Writing
• Link Ideas to Build Coherence
– Sustaining the key idea: repeating a key
expression or a similar one
– Using pronouns (we, they, she, he) to build
continuity by confirming to the audience that
the same thing under discussion is still being
discussed
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Third Step to Writing
– Dovetailing sentence : when an idea at the end
of one sentence connects with an idea at the
beginning of the next sentence
• Helpful with dense, difficult topics
• Should NOT be over used
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Third Step to Writing
• Transitional Expressions
– Helps reader anticipate what’s coming next,
reducing uncertainty and speed
comprehension
– Non-verbal road signs to readers and listeners
– They can add or strengthen a though, show
time or order, clarify ideas, show causes and
effect, contradict thoughts and contrast ideas
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Third Step to Writing
• Transitional Expressions To Build
Coherence
To Clarify
To show
cause and
effect
To
Contradict
To Contrast
after
for example
accordingly
actually
as opposed to
again
before
for instance
as a result
but
at the same
time
also
earlier
I mean
consequently
however
by contrast
besides
finally
in other words
for this reason
in fact
conversely
likewise
first
that is
so
instead
on the contrary
moreover
meanwhile
this means
therefore
rather
on the other
hand
To add or
Strengthen
To show
time or order
additionally
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Third Step to Writing
• Compose Short Paragraphs for Readability
– Business writers recognize the vale of short
paragraphs
– Paragraphs with eight or fewer lines look
inviting and readable
– If a topic cannot be covered in eight or fewer
lines, consider breaking it up into smaller
segments
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Links to External Information
• http://www.zenome.com/directory/index.ph
p?parentID=007.063.006.999