Presented by:
Shaun Kemp
ISCAR Conference Oral Session 42
Date of Presentation:
Thursday 2nd October 2014
2.20pm-2.40pm
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Background
Methodological Questions
Literature Review/Theoretical framework
Methodology issues and solution
Results of discourse analysis
Discussion of discourse analysis
Issues of discourse analysis
Further research
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Not an extensive review of discourse in CHAT
Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT)
defined as Engeström’s Y. (1987) Third
generation activity system incorporating
expansive learning (but this will not be
discussed)
Not an in depth explanation of Q method
Cautionary tale…
Feel free to go to another oral presentation
(come back in 20 minutes!)
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Local language planning at a Victorian
Government School
Object was a problem solving space
Whether or not to introduce Chinese language
learning into the school curriculum
Discourse mainly minutes and policy
documents over a ten year period (2004 to
2014)
Also interviews with 36 decision makers
(stakeholders)
A model of development phases and contradictions of an expansive transformation
of a collective activity system (adapted from Engeström 1987) (Mäkitalo, 2005, p.101)
But discourse in co-configurations was used to help
identify contradictions, discourse analysis to
understand outcome!
Two methodological questions addressed here:
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How to use discourse to determine how the
specific issues mediated over the process?
(narrative – see poster 41)
How to use discourse to determine which
mediated paths were critical in a decision
outcome? (discourse analysis)
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Lo Bianco (2005) suggested the best way
forward on theories on language planning is to
study how discourse operates in problem
identification systems and how the issue of
different participants’ ideology impacts on the
discourse.
Lo Bianco (2001) used discourse analysis to
identify nature of ideology in blue /red divide
with the nature of discourse around Official
English debate in USA (Non CHAT
framework)
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The problem that Lo Bianco (2010) recognises
and which has been also an issue for activity
theory is how to analyse the discourse. Lo
Bianco mentions an issue bought up by Wells
(2007): the difference between language use as
mundane (e.g. transactional) and ideological
(i.e. performativity).
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Wu’s (2005) work in categorizing education discourse
into a process of problem solving linking genre and
rationality—or discourse conventions and purpose
Wells (2007) also ties genre to the activity theory but
uses examples which are illustrative for local language
planning. Genre provides the template for sequential
outcome of the shared goal. For language planning in a
school, committee meetings are a normal tool
mechanism for decision-making or constitutive
discourse.
Middleton (2010) who also uses discourse analysis in
an activity system. Middleton tries to link the question
“Why this utterance now?” with the question, “Why
this action now?”
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Engeström and Sannino (2011) looked to create
a methodological framework based on activity
theory by which they found four types of
discursive manifestations, namely dilemmas,
conflicts, critical conflicts and double binds,
which could be identified by specific linguistic
cues
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Such a methodological framework would be
effective in a theory for language planning to
identify contradictions
Framework only works within a Change
Laboratory system where transcripts/video of the
conversations that go on in meetings can be made.
In this case study, such transcripts do not exist
(ethics!).
No similar research on discursive markers in
historical written documents such as committee
meetings nor discursive markers for research
interviews in a CHAT context.
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Lo Bianco (2001) suggests that by defining
discursive manifestations you can explore the
subjectivity of discourse, and specifically how a
person’s beliefs or ideology is linked to persuasive
discourse.
Dryzek and Berejikian (1993) use Q method in
conjunction with political discourse analysis
derived from the work on argument and theory by
political philosopher Stephen Toulmin (2003), to
construct an overall “concourse” or “big picture”
of discourses that represents the totality of
arguments on an issue in political debate.
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Change is tied to questions of values and
beliefs
Q methodology(Stephenson 1953): Takes a
picture of views and beliefs of different groups
at a point of mediated action
Brings out rich factors via concourse
(interviewing people, commentaries from other
documents)
Develops points of interest from the data
(discourse)
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Collecting the breadth of the discourse.
Sampling from the concourse to get a representative and
manageable set of statements from the concourse. This is the Q set.
The Q set is presented to the participants and they rank the
statements in order. This is the Q sort. The ranking scheme in Q
goes from a –5 (Most strongly disagree with the statement), –4, –3,
–2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5 (most strongly agree with the
statement).
The statistical correlation of gestalt Q sorts. (Done by a statistical
software package).
The statistical identification of factors. This looks at the grouping
of participants who have a similar perspective.
The statistically derived ranking of each factor.
The interpretation of the theoretical rankings for the factors.
The attachment of a label to each factor or viewpoint.
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The Q set was selected on an overriding
theoretical basis as determined by Dryzek and
Berejikian (1993); that is, the Q set did fulfil a
discourse theoretical requirement in order to
determine not only what were the issues but
also what was the rhetoric of the statements
that were selected by the participants.
Source: Dryzek and Berejikian (1993) as cited in Lo
Bianco (2001)
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The classification of the verb types are
definitive (concerning the meaning of terms),
designative (concerning questions of fact),
evaluative (concerning the worth of something
that does or could exist), and advocative
(concerning something that should or should
not exist).
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Ontology – Ontological concerns are
fundamental; they are about the assumptions
about the nature of the world
Agency – the statement is advocating for or
against
Motivation- the statement is about motivation
on the issue
Naturalness- the statement looks at the
relationships among entities.
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Statements categorized by the intersection
between the verb statement on the left side (the
rows, defining, designating, evaluating,
advocating) and the discourse features on the
right (the columns, ontology, agency,
motivation,
Cell 1 Defining Ontology
Cell 2 Defining Agency
Cell 3 Defining Motivation
Cell 4 Defining Naturalness
Cell 5 Designating Ontology
Cell 6 Designating Agency
Cell 7 Designating Motivation
Cell 8 Designating Naturalness
Cell 9 Evaluating Ontology
Call 10 Evaluating Agency
Cell 11 Evaluating Motivation
Cell 12 Evaluating Naturalness
Cell 13 Advocating Ontology
Cell 14 Advocating Agency
Cell 15 Advocating Motivation
Cell 16 Advocating Naturalness
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Cell One looks at argument that defines
ontology or the nature of the world.
Ontological concerns are fundamental; they
are about the assumptions about the nature of
the world. This cell is defining “What is there
to know about Chinese language planning?”
It is possible to argue that ontology is defined
as shared subjectivity.
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Statement 47. “The Confucius Institutes are
propaganda vehicles for the Chinese
Communist Party and not analogues of other
cultural Institutions. (Alliance Francaise,
Goethe Institute).”
Of the four statements in this cell two use
positive verbs towards Chinese language, two
negative verbs.
Factor A
positive
Defining
2
Designating
8
Evaluating
3
Advocating
2
negative
3
4
2
6
positive
2
4
7
2
negative
3
6
2
4
positive
2
2
4
7
negative
6
4
1
4
Factor B
Factor C
Factor A
positive
Ontology
5
Agency
3
Motivation
6
Naturalness
5
negative
4
4
2
4
positive
6
2
3
3
negative
5
3
3
4
positive
7
3
3
2
negative
2
4
4
5
Factor B
Factor C
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At the +3,4,5 and -3,-4,-5 extremes
Factor A (Viewpoint 1)- Defining-Naturalness
and Agency
Factor B (Viewpoint 2)–Evaluating-Naturalness
and Ontology
Defensiveness or weighing up
Factor C (Viewpoint C)- Advocating-Agency
and Ontology
Defensiveness
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The ideology of decision makers’ Factor A is
that they are strongly optimistic supporters of
Chinese. Their discourse was more fact
defining than argumentative. This individual
viewpoint does align itself directly with the
official storyline of the narrative of the
government/administration.
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Bonacina-Pugh’s (2012) “ policy as discourse”
is what people think should be done.
The importance of the Q sorts is that they
present three distinct viewpoints from the
decision makers. “Policy as discourse” aligned
with one viewpoint
The noteworthy aspect is that it shows the form
of discourse that is used by these different
viewpoints was different.
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Bonacina-Pugh’s (2012) “policy as practice” is
what people actually do.
Thus the practice indicates which of the
ideologies or factors have been successful in
overcoming other people’s viewpoints.
The discourse analysis may help understand
which discourse was successful in becoming
practice (with the CHAT framework
background. See poster 41!).
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As indicated by discourse analysis, the defining
verbs of the government’s policy as text do not
necessarily succeed over the advocating
ontology of the concerned teachers. So the form
of government language policy discourse and
that of local teachers appears different.
Local outcome “policy as practice” Chinese not
introduced.
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Presents only one microgenetic window on the
object
Banna (2013) used multiple Q sorts over time
Still needed use of narrative (Swain M.,
Kinnear P. & Steinman L. (2011)) to explain
expansive learning over the ten year period
Narrative exposed a flaw of this discourse
analysis
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Issue of finding the hidden truth has been
theorized and addressed by Rom Harré and
positioning theory (Berman et al., 1999; Harré
& Moghaddam, 2003)
A position is a metaphorical place in a
workplace or conversation (Redman & Fawns,
2010). This theory works on a mutually
determining triad of position, speech acts, and
storyline.
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The cover story tends to be the narrative given
by the teacher to the outside world. It presents
a position of where the teacher is representing
the school in the light of the administration’s
view of how the school theoretically is
operating in line with school policies. As such,
it tends to be “rhetoric of conclusions”.
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The sacred stories tend to be mostly unnoticed
and hard to define, but they are the stories
which teachers use with other teachers within
the school itself. It becomes the moral
orientation of the teacher in which the
theoretical knowledge of the teacher is
transformed into practice.
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The secret stories are the most difficult for the
researcher to get information on, and future
research on this area related to local language
planning would be beneficial.
Being a secret without the interaction of
reflective professional discussion can lead to a
very inward belief system, which may be, for
instance, racist.
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This research showed that a move to introduce
Chinese would have an effect on other languages’
student numbers and thus on the “secret story” of
the fear of unemployment (It was in the
concourse).
The politically acceptable discourse to maintain the
hegemony was the “cover story” (that students
must study a foreign language which is not their
community language). How to use discourse
analysis to distinguish which story is which and
which story they are acting on?
How to use discourse analysis on silence?
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CONTACT: kemp.shaun.h@edumail.vic.gov.au
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Dryzek, J.S and Berejikian ,J. (1993) Reconstructive Democratic Theory American
Political Science Review 87(1) 48-60.
Engeström, Y. 1987. Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach
to developmental research. Retrieved 23 September 2003, from
http://communication.ucsd.edu/MCA/Paper/Engeström/expanding/toc.ht
m
Engeström, Y.(2011) From design experiments to formative interventions Theory
Psychology 21: 598
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Engeström, Y & Sannino, A. (2010) Studies of expansive learning: Foundations,
findings and future challenges Educational Research Review 5 (2010) 1–24
Lo Bianco, J. (2005). Including discourse in language planning theory. Directions in applied
linguistics. P. Bruthiaux. Clevedon, Multilingual Matters: 255-264
Lo Bianco, J. (2001). Officialising language: A discourse study of language politics in
the United States. Research School of Social Sciences. Canberra, The Australian
National University. PhD thesis.
Stephenson (1953) The Study of Behaviour: Q Technique and it’s
Methodology
Engeström, Y., & Sannino, A. (2011). Discursive manifestations of
contradictions in organizational change efforts: A methodological framework.
Journal of Organizational Change Management, 24(3), 368-387
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Collins, C. (2008). 'Discourse' in cultural-historical perspective: Critical discourse
analysis, CHAT, and the study of social change. In B. van Oers, W. Wardekker, E.
Elbers & R. Van der Veer (Eds.), The transformation of learning: Advances in culturalhistorical activity theory. (pp. 242-272). New York, NY US: Cambridge University
Press.
Wu, Z. (2005). Teachers' Knowing in Curriculum Change: A Critical Discourse Study of
Language Teaching. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Middleton, D. (2010). Identifying learning in interprofessional discourse: the
development of an analytic protocol. In H. Daniels, A. Edwards, Y. Engeström, T.
Gallagher & S. R. Ludvigsen (Eds.), Activity theory in practice : promoting learning
across boundaries and agencies (pp. 90-104). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Sannino, A. (2008). From Talk to Action: Experiencing Interlocution in
Developmental Interventions. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 15(3), 234-257. doi:
10.1080/10749030802186769
Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press.
Bonacina-Pugh, F. (2012). Researching "Practiced language policies": Insights from
Conversation Analysis. Language Policy, 11(3), 213-234.
Redman, C., & Fawns, R. (2010). How to use pronoun grammar analysis as a
methodological tool for understanding the dynamic lived space of people. In S.
Rodrigues (Ed.), Using analytical frameworks for classroom research: collecting data and
analysing narrative
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Engeström, Y. & Sannino, A. (2010) Studies of
expansive learning: Foundations, findings and
future challenges Educational Research Review 5:1-
24
Expansive learning as cycles of learning actions
 “The expansive cycle of learning actions has been
used as framework of interpretation in studies of
relatively large-scale and lengthy processes of
transformation.” p10
Sequencing of learning actions in an expansive learning cycle( Engestrom, 1999,
p.384)
A model of development phases and contradictions of an expansive transformation
of a collective activity system (adapted from Engeström 1987) (Mäkitalo, 2005, p.101)
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Case studies involve the exploration in depth
of a program, an event, an activity or a process.
This makes them ideal for activity theory
research (Cross 2009). The case study is in the
form of a narrative (Swain , Kinnear &
Steinman 2011)
Narrative inquiry also encompasses discourse
analysis via Positioning Theory Clandinin, D.
&Connelly, F.(1996)
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Change is tied to questions of values and
beliefs
Q methodology(Stephenson 1953): Takes a
picture of views and beliefs of different groups
at a point of mediated action
Brings out rich factors via concourse
(interviewing people, commentaries from other
documents)
Political Discourse Matrix via Dryzek and
Berejikian (1993)
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1- The first action is that of questioning,
criticizing or rejecting some aspects of the
accepted practice and existing wisdom. In this
phase the contradiction is made apparent as it
is this that drives the questioning.
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“During the course of the review it was
accepted that a key purpose of studying a
language is to provide an opportunity to learn
about another culture.” Directions Committee
minutes May 2008
‘In the absence of overt or explicit detailed
planning, teachers make recourse, through
underlying beliefs and values, to patterns of
behaviour that reflect past accommodations of
past policies, sometimes contradicting the
broad policy altogether. Thus ideology
operates as “default” policy.’(Lo Bianco 2004
p750)
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Three viewpoints (Ideology)
1.”Yes we can” – There is a government push for
Chinese. We have many Chinese Heritage
students. Chinese can be learnt let’s do it!”
2. ”Wary engagement” – China and the Chinese
Heritage community, we are worried about their
influence but understand it and wish to embrace
but what about its impact on others?
3. “Threatened”- I like Chinese, its influence here is
over exaggerated but we are under threat. LOTE
should be used to expose new cultures.
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At the +3,4,5 and -3,-4,-5 extremes
Yes we can- Defining-Naturalness and Agency
Wary –Evaluating-Naturalness and Ontology
Defensiveness or weighing up
Threatened- Advocating-Agency and Ontology
Defensiveness
Yes we can
positive
Defining
7
Designating
4
Evaluating
2
Advocating
4
negative
4
1
2
4
positive
4
1
5
4
negative
2
4
4
3
positive
0
5
3
7
negative
3
2
3
5
Wary
Threatened
Yes we can
Ontology
Agency
Motivation
Naturalness
positive
4
3
4
4
negative
4
6
1
4
Wary
Ontology
Agency
Motivation
Naturalness
positive
5
4
1
3
negative
4
2
3
5
Threatened
Ontology
Agency
Motivation
Naturalness
positive
3
1
5
6
negative
4
7
1
3
Practical
Ontology
Agency
Motivation
Naturalness
positive
negative
Confident
2
5
Ontology
4
4
Agency
5
2
Motivation
4
4
Naturalness
positive
negative
Status quo
positive
negative
6
5
Ontology
7
2
2
3
Agency
3
4
3
3
Motivation
3
3
4
3
Naturalness
2
5
Practical
Defining
Designating
Evaluating
Advocating
positive
negative
Confident
1
2
Defining
7
4
Designating
3
2
Evaluating
2
6
Advocating
positive
negative
Status quo
positive
negative
2
3
Defining
2
3
4
6
Designating
2
4
6
2
Evaluating
4
1
2
4
Advocating
7
4
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Methodology for language planning theory –
Discourse analysis vs. discursive markers and
emotive analysis.
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Factor A: Strongly optimistic supporter
Julie Gillard has signalled the Asian century (9) and so
Chinese is increasingly important on the world stage
(24), China is providing helpful non-political cultural
institutes like the Confucius Institute to support
language learning (47). Given these influences we are
hopeful that interest in the study of Chinese will grow
(31) as Chinese is not a dry language of rote memory
(33). Despite the introduction supported by the LOTE
faculty, overall (55), we recognise that at this time the
introduction of Chinese is not supported in the school
as the school has a policy of not supporting community
languages (56), perhaps also because of the concern of
teachers losing their job, but this is not a reason to
block the introduction of Chinese (64).
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Cell Two consists of arguments that define
degrees of agency (be they autonomous or
restricted). Viewpoints relating to this cell
might be Marxist where social classes have
agentive power or political liberals might see
that individuals have power.
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Cell Three consists of statements which define
the kinds of motives that these participants’
objects might have. This is important given the
relationship of objects or a specific issue to
create motivation. In some instances
motivation might be self-interest, in others it
might be social pressure.
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Cell Four looks at the relations among issues or
entities (Are teacher decision makers in the
same social space as administration? In
Chinese heritage culture, are students and
parents always involved in conflict over the
interest in Chinese?). The classification of the
verb types are definitive (concerning the
meaning of terms), designative (concerning
questions of fact), evaluative (concerning the
worth of something that does or could exist),
and advocative (concerning something that
should or should not exist).
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Cell 10
Statement 47. ‘The Confucius Institutes are
propaganda vehicles for the Chinese
Communist Party and not analogues of other
cultural Institutions. (Alliance Francaise,
Goethe Institute).’
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Activity system as a unit of analysis
Contradictions as a source of change and
development
Agency as a layer of causality
Expansive learning as boundary crossing and
network building
Expansive learning as distributed and
discontinuous movement
Discourse (meetings) as double stimulation
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The research by Vainio, J. (2012) has tried to
link hegemony with the activity theory concept
of contradiction and, furthermore, used a form
of discourse analysis in order to determine
when changes to hegemony do occur.
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There are two ways to present the discourse
analysis. Firstly, linking the Q statements
together, we can form the idealised narrative
for both decision makers and students’ groups
as done by Lo Bianco (2001a) . This is done by
only using the very high and low scores (+5, –
5) for each of the discourses for each of the
factors identified by the Varimax software sort.
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It seems from Lo Bianco (2001a) that rhetoric
does little to shift one side of the argument to
the other. Rhetoric appears to create a selffulfilling policy of agreement to the common
sense of each ideology.
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Secondly, Table 5 looks at the ideal Q sorts given
by the software for two separate Q sorts for the
decision makers and the students, as for the
previous discourse analysis and analyses them
according to the similarities and differences in the
positive and negative verb kinds that feature in
each ideology. Table 6 does a similar discourse
analysis but on discourse features. Table 5 and
Table 6 are a structured form of crib sheet analysis
(Watts & Stenner, 2012).This analysis aims to
determine what are the underlying features of
rhetoric and argumentation involved in each
ideological discourse, at the +3, 4, 5 and –3, –4, –5
extremes (Lo Bianco, 2001a)
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It seems similar Lo Bianco (2001) that rhetoric
does little to shift one side of the argument to
the other. Rhetoric appears to create a selffulfilling policy of agreement to the common
sense of each ideology. Discourse analysis
allows identification of ideology