Adult Learning: Theories,
Assumptions, and
Perspectives
“The art and science of helping
adults learn”
Malcolm Knowles
Adult Learning: Theories,
Assumptions, and Perspectives
 Survey
(Jean)
 Overview of Andragogy (Wade)
 Different Views of Adult Learning
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Transformative Learning (Jo)
Self-directed Learning (Sabrina)
Foreign-Born (Sheryl)
Afro centric (Jean)
 Survey
(Jean)
History of Adult Learning Theory:
From “Whatagogy?” to Andragogy

The Meaning of Adult Education by Eduard
Lindeman in 1926 marked the beginning of adult
education as a field
 Adult educators began to look for a unique adult
education knowledge base
 European adult educators began to use the term
andragogy in the 1950s
 Andragogy finally surfaced and became part of
the educational language in 1967 with Malcolm
Knowles, a prominent scholar in the field of adult
education. He writes:
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…in 1967 I had an experience that made it all
come together. A Yugoslavian adult educator,
Dusan Savicevi, participated in a summer
session I was conducting at Boston University.
At the end of it he came up to me with his eyes
sparkling and said , “Malcolm, you are preaching
and practicing andragogy.” I replied
“Whatagogy?” because I had never heard the
term before. He explained that the term had
been coined by a teacher in a German grammar
school, Alexander Kapp, in 1833… The term lay
fallow until it was once more introduced by a
German social scientist, Eugene Rosenstock, in
1921, but it did not receive general recognition.
Then in 1957 a German teacher, Franz
Poggeler, published a book Introduction Into
Andragogy: Basic Issues in Adult Education...
Andragogy Defined

The term andragogy is based on the Greek work
aner (with the stem andr-) meaning ‘man not
boy’ (Plato’s idea that adults continue to learn
 The Modern Practice of Adult Education:
Andragogy versus Pedagogy (1970) Malcolm
Knowles
 Knowles defines andragogy as the art and
science of helping adults learn in contrast with
pedagogy, which concerns helping children learn
 Is Andragogy a learning theory or a set of
assumptions?
Theory
 “A theory
is a set of interrelated concepts
that explain some aspect of the field in a
parsimonious manner” (Merriam and
Caffarella, 1989)
Learning Theory: Four Major
Lenses
– People’s behavior is a
collection of habits. Individuals learn
through positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement. (Thorndike,
Watson, & Skinner)
 Subject-Centered – Primary teaching
function is the selection of “lesson plans”
containing the content and “right” answers.
(Locke, Herbart & Hirsch)
 Behaviorist
Learning Theory: Four Major
Lenses
– Knowledge is not simply
“out there” to be attained; it is constructed
by the learner.
 Student Centered – students’ interest and
needs must be integrated with subject
demands – meaningful learning takes
place as the abstract world of concepts
connects to the real world of personal
experience (Dewey)
 Constructivist
Five Assumptions of Andragogy
according to Knowles (1973)

Self-Concept: Adult learners are directing their
own plan. (teacher directed vs. self directed)
 Experience: Adult learners bring an ever
growing reservoir of experience and knowledge
to the table. The traditional concept of the
“tabla rasa” or blank slate does not apply to the
adult learner.
 Readiness to learn: Adults are focused and
ready in a highly pragmatic way. Adults want to
learn those things that will have a direct impact
on themselves, their family, and/or work.
Five Assumptions of Andragogy
according to Knowles (1973)
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Orientation to learning: Problem centered
rather than subject centered.
Motivation: Adult learners are learning for
a reason, and they push themselves
from within. They are sparked by an
inner source and have a sense of
urgency about their learning. (internal vs.
external motivation)
Four Supporting Assumptions
according to Dirkx, Lavin, and
Pelavin (1995)
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Diverse, active learners: wealth of experiences
 Problem-oriented: pragmatic learners, seeking
to improve their performance
 Control of their own learning: voluntary learners
who take seriously their decision to return to
school.
 Strong sense of self: varying degrees of selfefficacy, but sense of self plays a major role in
their learning
Andragogy: Theory or Set of
Assumptions?
 Defining
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questions:
What is andragogy and to whom does it
apply?
Do some or all of the assumptions apply to
children?
Are its assumptions too simplistic?
Does andragogy ignore the learning context?
Is it a teaching theory or learning theory?
Andragogy: Theory or Set of
Assumptions?

As the scholarly debate over Andragogy raged in
the 1970s and 1980s Knowles become more
open to criticism.
 In 1980 Knowles stated: “I don’t see andragogy
as an ideology at all, but a set of assumptions
about learners that needs to be tested for
different learners in different situations”. (The
Modern Practice of Adult Education, 1980)
 He also stated that pedagogy (teacher centered
learning) and andragogy (learner-centered
learning) existed on a continuum.
 Jo will now take a look at Adult Learning through
the lense of Transformative Learning.
Transformative Learning
 Transformation
vs. Learning for
Information
 Philosophical Approaches:
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Daloz: developmental approach
Freiere: emancipatory perspective
Boyd: extrarational approach
Mezirow: cognitive/rational lens
Mezirow’s 10-step process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
the disorienting dilemma
fear, anger, guilt or shame
critical assessment of assumptions about the world
realization that others have gone through what they are feeling
exploration of new roles, relationships and actions
planning a course of action
gaining knowledge and skills for implementing the plan of action
trying on a new role
becoming competent in the new role
the new perspective becomes a part of the person.
The Lynchpins
 Experience
 Critical
Reflection
 Reflective Discourse
Fostering Transformative Learning
 Ideal
conditions and practices
 Psychological Type
 Examples
Self-Directed Learning
L. Baumgartner (2003)
Example – Tom
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) have three
definitions of self-directed learning:
Goals
a process
a personal attribute
Yale, 1828
Graduates should develop “...the skills necessary
to continue learning throughout life”
Models of Self-directed Learning
 Sequential
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What, where, how, set deadlines, get proper
resources, find time, increase motivation
 Interwoven
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(Tough, 1991)
(Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991)
Self-directed learning occurs when need is
matched with opportunity
 Instructional
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(Grow, 1991)
Describes 4 stages
• From relying heavily on the teacher for guidance to
taking full responsibility for learning
Three Goals of SDL
 To
help learning become more selfdirected
 To foster transformative learning
 To promote emancipatory learning and
social action
Self-Directed Learning

Donald Roberson (2002)
 Ten older adults (at least 70) in South Georgia
 Two interviews over a two day period (4-5 hours)
 Questions
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What is the nature of learning?
What is the process of learning?
What are the late life adjustments?
What is the impact of living in a rural environment?
 Findings:
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Learning is exciting, fun
It begins with an interest
Various learning activities happen
simultaneously
Rural : community of fellow learners, simple&
peaceful lifestyle; predominately positive to
SDL
Older adults have extra time for SDL
Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning
S.B. Merriam (2001)

How does Merriam compare andragogy and
self-directed learning?
 Does an adult learner need to be motivated to
learn?
 “…whereas a dependent learning needs more
introductory material and appreciate lecture, drill
and immediate correction, a self-directed learner
can engage in independent projects, studentdirected discussions, and discovery learning”
(p.10). Do you agree or disagree with this
statement?
Foreign-Born Learners &
the role of context

Context is defined in terms of the total
experiences & activities engaged in by members
of various social groups.
 In addition to geographic space, this includes
biographic, interpersonal, political, historical &
sociocultural settings in which individuals are
socialized, shaped & situated, and in which they
interact.
 Includes diverse & intersecting influences of
race, class, gender, nationality, communities &
the larger political & sociocultural milieu.
Specific Questions

How did the specific historic, political, and
sociocultural contexts in which Knowles was
situated influence his construction of
andragogy?
 What are the ways in which contexts impact
adult learners & their learning process?
 Being heavily affected by one’s contexts, what
characteristics would adult immigrant learners
demonstrate?
 To what extent does andragogy capture the
characteristics of adult immigrant learners?
Prior Knowledge:
Accountant – camel - twist
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The accountants will
score the pair higher if
they include a camel
followed by a twist.
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Official who compiles
scores from judges and
computes placements.
Spin on one leg, while the
other leg is extended in
the air parallel to the ice.
Male lifts & throws his
partner, then catches her
on landing after she has
performed a double or
triple twist in the air.
“Class Matters”
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Prior Knowledge
 Motivation – voluntary or mandatory
 Available resources/supports
 Inter/Intra relationships
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Group Dynamics
• Caretaker, Know-It-All, Hitchhiker, Blocker, Omnivore, Inquisitor, Negotiator,
Overachiever, Parliamentarian, Sage
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Power struggle
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Student/Teacher
• Foreign Born
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Hmong – need for specific instructional directions, respect & submissive attitude (Hvitfeldt,
1986).
Chinese – respecting authority, maintaining harmony, valuing study & degrees, and putting men
above women (Pratt, 1991; Lee, 1999).
British – prefer learning through lectures & written assignments (Alfred, 2003)
Findings:
• Instead of feeling self-directed, often felt lost when instructors focused too much on
group discussion or did not lecture.
• Had to renegotiate their identity, language, and voice in order to be recognized & heard
in the U.S. classroom.
• Approval & guidance by the instructor sometimes more critical than internal motivation.
Guidelines for Cultural Diversity
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Acknowledge individuals bring multiple perspectives to
any learning situation as a result of their gender,
ethnicity, class, age, sexuality, &/or physical abilities.
Recognize identification w/social group is multiple &
complex.
Reflect & value the experiences of learners.
Pay attention to power relations inherent in knowledge
production.
Be aware participants are positioned differently in
relationship to each other & to the knowledge being
acquired.
Acknowledge the power disparity between the
teacher/facilitator & the students (Tisdell 1995, p. 90).
Adult Learner Roles
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Caretaker: Do we need a break?
Know-it-All: A comment for every idea and is
willing to share
Hitchhiker: Passive learner, along for the ride
Blocker (Devil’s Advocate): contrary positions in
the discussion
Parliamentarian: “Haven’t we extended our rule
about time limits for group presentations?”
Sage: formal and informal power in the group
Clown: brings levity to the scene, humor to
diffuse mounting conflict
Afro centric View of Adult
Learning Theory
“To what extent are the values and
assumptions that the concepts of
andragogy and self-directed learning
espouse culturally relevant in today’s field
of adult education that values diversity and
different ways of knowing and knowledge
construction?” (Alfred, p. 2)
It is necessary to understand the system
of slavery in order to understand the
learning of African Americans. “…slavery
facilitated a transformation within the
African American culture that forced
Africans to think and do differently with not
only what they knew but what new
knowledge had developed… . It was in the
struggle of an oppressive society that
progress in education was made”
(Flowers, p. 36).
Afro centricity Theory
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Sankoan - return to the source
Nommoic – the word, the power of the word
Maatic– truth, justice, harmony
Political Intellectual – political/economic or
scholarly honesty/integrity
African Collective Memory-Perception – linked
eternally
Explicit Locational – place relative to ideas,
myth, history, symbols, etc.
 “The
concepts of andragogy and selfdirected learning tend to ignore the politics
of positionality (power relations, race,
class, gender, and ethnicity) and their
influence on the teaching and learning
dynamics in the classroom” (JohnsonBailey & Cervero, 1997, in Alfred)
The Message
“To touch one’s sprit requires that the
teacher be grounded in
understanding the student’s history,
language, culture, and lived
experiences. In order to help the
learner reach his or her potential in
the learning environment, the teacher
must make a connection to the
affective and spiritual as well as the
cognitive domains” (Alfred, p. 45).